tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-25350444859043252972024-03-19T15:49:23.810-07:00National Forage & Grassland Research Centre, NepalNational Forage and Grassland Research Centre, Nepal is a GOvernment Registered Private organisation devoted in research and studies related with forage, grassland and livestock based livelihoods in Nepal Himalaya. It is founded by Rameshwar Singh Pande.National Forage and Grassland Research Centrehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12680280011049738183noreply@blogger.comBlogger8125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2535044485904325297.post-18378027792307642862007-07-28T18:25:00.000-07:002007-07-28T18:34:12.401-07:00Canadian Forage Sorghum in Nepal<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiluVAadwyTc7h95fVPoxEoybbWam2swGv4wKLGKt11-Doiges9qT0GVKabIYAMz2FQZxsMgcqluAnX8OMMOns8lTb0xCk371373vhjhb-zFO8ZwFukamxiEJaQlw8u8064Nkw6GcuU/s1600-h/Dhanusa+sorghum+09+-+2006.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiluVAadwyTc7h95fVPoxEoybbWam2swGv4wKLGKt11-Doiges9qT0GVKabIYAMz2FQZxsMgcqluAnX8OMMOns8lTb0xCk371373vhjhb-zFO8ZwFukamxiEJaQlw8u8064Nkw6GcuU/s200/Dhanusa+sorghum+09+-+2006.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5092425879104540034" /></a><br />Role of “Canadian Forage Sorghum Hybrid- 30” on year round fodder supply to small dairy farmers, Nepal”<br />- Rameshwar S Pande, <br />NFGRC/Nepal & ABTRACO, Kathmandu, Nepal <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />1.0 Introduction:<br />Dairy enterprises are major sources of livelihoods of over 70,000 small farmers in Nepal. Nepal produces 1.2 million Mt of milk/year from 1.8 numbers of milking cows and buffaloes. The Dairy Development Corporation purchase about 0.2 litres of milk every day and pay over 1,052 million Rs as a milk price (DDC, 2005), equal quantities of milk are purchased by other 200 private dairies. The average milk consumption in Nepal is 49 Lt/year, far below compared to South Asian Countries 69 Lt. HMG/Nepal has targeted to raise milk production from 1.2 to 1.4 million Mt during the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) (NPC, 2002). <br /><br />2.0 Major constraints of dairy production:<br />The evolution of dairy enterprises was initiated in around 1980’s by importing high yielding cross bred animals (Jursey and/or Holstein Friesian crosses and Murrah buffaloes). These dairy animals are raised on concentrated based feeding which affects on high cost of milk production. Practices of forage cultivation are not common. Thus, the green fodder supply on year round basis- is a major limiting factor for profitable dairy enterprises in Nepal. Due to acute deficiency of quality feeds and fodder and increased feeding and management cost, the farmers are not getting adequate benefit as envisaged.<br /><br />The discussions with the farmers reveal that about 60-to 90 percent of the income from the sale of milk are being invested to purchase concentrated feed. Due to high feed cost, farmers are not getting enough benefit as envisaged. As there is a lack of other means of livelihoods farmers are compelled to continue less earning dairy business. So, to sustain the dairy farming cost effective feeding systems needs to be promoted. <br /><br />3.0 Endeavour to promote feeds and fodder development in Nepal:<br />Since the efforts of government and various non-government agencies significant achievements have been made in fodder and pasture development in Nepal (Pande,1994; 1997). However, the supply of fodder is lagged behind to meet the demand. The estimated shortage of dry matter is over 40 percent (Pande, 2004; 2005). The major fodder crops grown in Nepal are oat (Avena sativa), berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum), teosinte (Euchleana mexicana), Stylo (Stylosanthes guinensis), napier (Pennisetum purpureum) and others. About 2000 ha of land brought under fodder cultivation each year. To sustain the dairy enterprises as well as to improve the livelihoods of small dairy farmers more emphasis should be given on promotion of fodder based dairy enterprises needs to be promoted.<br /><br />4.0 Promotion of fodder based low cost feeding systems: <br />Forage based dairy farming is one of the cheapest and environmentally sound system and could improve the animal health as well as reduce the cost of production significantly. Due to the concentrated based feeding practices, the unit cost of milk production is very high. For example, the cost of production of milk in Chitwan is about Rs 22/lt. Presently, the raw milk fetches about NRs 15- 18 per litre depending on fat and solid not fat content. So, to sustain the small holders dairy enterprises the cost of production of raw milk needs to be maintain at optimal prices by lowering of feeding and management cost. <br /><br />5.0 Testing and expansion of Canadian Forage Sorghum Hybrid in Nepal:<br />The Canadian Forage Sorghum Hybrid –30 (CFSH-30) is developed in AERC, Canada by OP Dangi (AERC, 2005). CFSH-30 is a high yielding, nutritious, adapted to a wide range of climate, is a most suitable fodder for dairy animals. It contains 14-15 percent crude protein and could be harvested within 35-45 days of sowing, and gives 3-4 cuttings with the average yield of 3-4 Mt ton DM/ha (AERC, 2005, OP Dangi and R. Rana 2005: personal communication).<br /><br />The CFSH-30 was first tested by NARC in Nepal during 2002/2004, produced yield of green matter 49 MT/ha to 74 ton/ha (NARC, 2004) and was recommended to expand at farmers level as an substitute to high cost concentrated feed. <br /><br />The Agri- Business & Trade Promotion Multipurpose Cooperative Ltd (ABTRACO) has been supporting small dairy farmers by promoting cost effective milk production systems using CFSH-30 cultivation in Nepal with the financial support of Canadian Cooperation Office/Nepal in collaboration with AERC Canada since March 2005. ABTRACO has established over 620 demonstration and testing sites of CFSH-30 in 12 milk shed districts in collaboration with NARC and Livestock Department.<br /><br />The preliminary results of the study revealed that the performance and contribution in ensured fodder supply is quite satisfactory. The average green fodder yield was 50 Mt /ha (ABTRACO, 2005, preliminary observation). Ms Sunita Chailagain of Lalbandi, Nepal reports that: “CFSH-30 is much better than oat, as it can be grown on year round basis and produces more fodder than oat, it is more nutritious and liked by the animals, even a stem of finger thickness are chewed. Her buffalo was giving two liters of milk/day since after feeding the CFSH-30, buffalo started to produce three liters of milk”. Mr. Ram Prasad Gautam of Chitwan says that “there was no difference in milk yield when the concentrated feed was replaced with CFSH-30 fodder and also milk yield increased ”Similarly, Mr. Charitar Mahato says that “this fodder (CFSH-30) is very good as it can be grown in off season and my buffalo came in heat earlier after feeding this fodder”. During the testing phase only a small proportion of farmers were involved, realising the need to sustain small scale dairy enterprises the scaling up of CFSH-30 needs to be promoted in a wider scale covering a large number of milk producers cooperatives with the provision of seed production at local level.<br /><br />Acknowledge:<br />The CCO/Nepal for funding and technical support of AERC Canada in particular to Dr OP Dangi and Dr Rajendra Rana for their support and guidence during the projgram implementation by ABTRACO for the improvement of livelihoods of small dairy farmeres in Nepal. <br /><br />Reference:<br />• AERC, 2005, http://www.aerc.forage sorghum.html<br />• DDC, 2005, http://www.dfairydev.com.np<br />• Pande, R S 2004. Ensuring forage supply from Nepal’s community forests. APANEWS, Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter No. 25. December 2004<br />• NPC, 2002. National Planning Commission, HMG/Nepal<br />• Pande, R. S. 1994: Livestock Feeds and Grassland Development in Nepal (Nepali), National Forage and Grassland Research Center G.P.O. Box 10245, Kathmandu, 1994.<br />• Pande, RS. 1997: Fodder and Pasture Development in Nepal. Udaya Research and Development Services Pvt. Ltd, Sanepa, Nepal.1997.<br />• Pande, RS 2005 “Pro-poor Community Forage Production Program in the NACRMLP, Nepal” Proceedings of the Workshop on Fodder Oats, TCP/NEP/2901, FAO 8-11 March 2005.National Forage and Grassland Research Centrehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12680280011049738183noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2535044485904325297.post-64296319910487847112007-07-14T22:15:00.000-07:002007-07-31T18:19:34.280-07:00Livestock Based Livelihoods in Nepal<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEKOn3E-QrDfHOGrWjp-R5DtVPS31JC3CvfvPa1tGr3NBQSLFEpePkeBs8kfteqaEBe-Oe6APt-07Ar-k5LhaY35fijWv90-2GuCj-iSxLiK5iuIyjJBu-0pZcnrABk2mqbBAi0BCl/s1600-h/Dairy+cow+Morang.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEKOn3E-QrDfHOGrWjp-R5DtVPS31JC3CvfvPa1tGr3NBQSLFEpePkeBs8kfteqaEBe-Oe6APt-07Ar-k5LhaY35fijWv90-2GuCj-iSxLiK5iuIyjJBu-0pZcnrABk2mqbBAi0BCl/s200/Dairy+cow+Morang.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5093534946691783346" /></a><br /><br /><br /><strong>Livestock Based Livelihoods in Nepal</strong><br />By: Rameshwar Singh Pande, July 2007<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><strong>Introduction:</strong><br />The consumption of livestock by-products in regular diets of Nepalese family is still a luxury. The quantity of animal products used by a household is directly co-related with the prosperity and income level. The majorities of livestock farmers are poor and the average consumption of livestock products are below the Asian standard. <br /><br />The animals are worshiped as a god/goddess in majoritrities of Hindu and Buddhist communities. The livestock are assets, used as emergency capital and live cash, provide nutrition (milk, meat and eggs), soil nutrients (manure, urine and decaing carcases), energy (draught power, transportation and fuel), animal fibre (wool and hair), carcas by-products (bone, hide and skin); and associated with religious sentiments. As the larger proportion of the livestock by-products are consumed in urban centres, and by the well-off non-farming families; the livestock sector is a major source to drain cash in rural areas and to the poorer households. <br /><br />Nepal is one of the least developed countries in the world; the Gross National Income per capita is just around US$ 230. In terms of economy, Nepal is in 191st place out of 208 countries, and also the Human Development Index of Nepal is just 0.499 one of the lowest position (143rd) out of 175 countries. The contribution of livestock in national economy is about 18 percent in national Gross Domestic Products (GDP) and 32 percent in Agricultural Gross Domestic Products (AGDP) (CBS, 2006). The growth rate of livestock sector is between 3.5 and 5 percent per annum is more rapid than crop. It is anticipated that the contribution of livestock sector will reach 45 percent at the end of Agriculture Perspective Plan period (1995 to 2015). Among the livestock component, the dairy sector is the most important livestock sub-component, contributing about 62 percent of the livestock to the AGDP and over 500,000 people directly invilved in dairy entreprsises. Similarly, the poultry enterprises is also an emerging economic sector, over 65,000 people are employed in commercial poultry farming. Thus the livestock sector can contribute significantly in rural poverty reduction and a tool for the rural employment generation.<br /><br />Almost all kind of domesticated animals, except cameloids are raised in Nepal. Depending on elevation, livestock type and concentration varies from region to region. The major livestock in lower belt are cattle, buffaloes, goat, sheep, pigs and poultry and, at higher elevation the important animals are - Yak, Chauris, cattle, sheep and mules. <br /><br />The average holding of livestock (cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats and pigs) per households is 4.9. Hovever, the overall production and productivity of individual livestock are very low mainly due to combined effects of poor forage supply, mismanagement and poor animal health care cconditions; the native breeds are smaller in body size and are low producing, but are noted for its hardiness; thrives on harsh environment and produce even under half-starved conditions.<br /><br />In recent years, growing population in cities, improving income level, and significant growth of tourism have led the high demand for animal by-products such as milk, meat and eggs. The increasing demand has encouraged the farmers to rear high yielding dairy animals, adopt commercial poultry farming and goat/pig meat production especially around the urban periphery and trekking routes despite the political instability and deteriorating security situations. However, the marketing and commercialised production and processing of the livestock products are lagged behind. The processing capacity of the dairy industries have not been able to absorbe the produced milk by the farmers, and resulted in “Milk Holidays”; which have advesely affected the livelihood of the smallholders dairy farmers. Similarly, the high cost of feed ingrediants and recent threat of bird flu (avian influenza) have negetivily affected the commerical poultry farming. <br /><br />The increasing population of human as well as livestock has exerted excessive pressure on available feed resources. The number of livestock per unit of cultivated land in Nepal is highest in the world. There is an excessive pressure on cropland and forest for food, fodder and fuelwood, which directly affecting the sustainability and conservation of available resources. Due to over utilisation and misuse, the available resources are in detrimental stage. Similarly, the increasing livestock and poultry production in peri-urban area under modifying management systems to meet the urban market deman has led many issues relating to rising demand of livestock feed, veterinary services, loss of genetic resources, trainng and extension to the smallscale producers, livestock waste manegemnt and transmision of zoonotic diseases and environmantal issues.<br /><br />It is also argued that livestock and livestock waste produce gases (ammonia, including carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxides - affect the world's atmosphere by contributing to global warming, however, the emission of these greenhouse gases, particularly nitrous oxides and methane are major sources of bio-gas and can be used as fuel or to generate electricity. In the context to Nepal, the trend of commercial large-scale industralised production of livestock nither benefit to the majority of the farmers (e.g.commerical poulty/pig farming) nor feasible to adopt in large scale in a wider area due to scarse resources. <br /><br />On the other hands, wth the importation of high yielding commercial breeds and technologies, the cabalilities and skill of the rural farmers have not been developed to adopt the improved management practices. Commercialised farming and improved feeds and forage management is relatively a new concept. Majority of the farmers, still believe that livestock thrives on natural vegetation and crop by-products, and overall livestock products only be improved by increasing the number rather than improvement in performance and the use of superior genetic materials.<br /><br />Since last decade, keeping improved high yielding dairy animals, hybrid poultry farms and forage crop cultivation increased significantly. <br /><br />Contrary to large holdings of animals and “milk holidays” Nepal still imports a large quatity of dairy products (milk powder), feed ingredients, live animals (goats, buffaloes), carpet wool, medicines and vaccines from other countries. <br />The severity of the problems faced by the farmers and the status of the rural poverty especially among the livestock farmers are still remained the same.<br /><br />Being an agricultural country, ecologaically diversified, Nepal has a vast potentiality for the improvement of livestock based economy especially in the field of milk and milk by-products (cattle, buffalo and chauri), poultry, live animals (goat, sheep and pig), and other. Being an agricultural country, the Nepalese farmer practices mixed production of crop and livestock. The livestock are complementary to crop production; the crops grown solely for subsistance and the livestock sector are supplementary to crop production. The crop residues used as fodder to the animals and the animals' manure used to fertilise soil and contribute to add value to cereals; the livestock owners use labour more efficiently and diversify risk with extra income sources. Over 80 percent of the households maintain few heads of animal and poultry birds; even the land less families and ultra-poor households rear few heads of livestock. <br /><br />It is anticipated that the improved supply of quality feeds and forage could alone enhance the animal production by three folds and save much of the degradations of the natural resources. <br /><br />As the feed deficiency is directly related with overall performance of the animals and the natural resources management, the issues need to be addressed seriously for the livelihoods of the smallholders as well as for the transformation of the traditional farming systems into commercalised compatative market oriented production systems.<br /><br />Various organisations have implemented and/or proposed different strategies to improve the situation of livestock production and livestock based poverty reduction. The community level organisations and many INGOs are using livestock mainly small animals like goats, pigs, poultry birds as a means of poverty mitigation tool and distributing animals to the targeted households. <br /><br />Recently, the trend of organic livestock farming and/or sustainable livestock production is increasig. Re-establishment of the livestock production closer to feed sources in the rural areas by improving the infrasture facilities is the recent trend. The challenge is to obtain higher efficiencies without overconcentrating livestock. With improvements in transport and storage, it is possible to move livestock production closer to feed sources - i.e. back to rural areas - allowing for wastes not only to be absorbed, but returned as nutrients. Re-establishing this link would thus help to reduce the soil nutrient mining caused by feed production. <br /><br />Combined with the increasing access to the modern facilities and other factors, the role and importance of livestock based livelihoods especialy in rural areas has been threatned and the increasing role of smallholder livestock production is in declinig. For example, the role of animal draught power has been replacing with mechanical power, the manure with chemical fertilisers and animal fibres with synthetic materials. On the otherhand, landless livestock/poultry production systems are being introduced and practiced by the farmers, and the rearing of livestock/poultry farming are moving rapidely from remote areas to the periphery of urban settlement due to increasing urban demand, easy market access and improved infrastructure facilities and opportinities of social security to the livestock producers. Similarly, trend to rear multipurpose to single purpose animals are increasing with the objective of production of animal protein e.g. declining of sheep number and increase of goat population.<br /><br />Numerous issues needs to be addressed for the strengthening and sustained development of livestock based livelihoods, such as: a)Improving the livelihoods of the rural households especially smallholder livestock producers, b)Strengthening and enhanced capacity of the smallholder livestock producers and implementing public private agencies especially in the field of infrastructure, research and extension, credit, feeding, breeding and veterinary services, c)Import substitution of dairy products, carpet wool, feed ingredients, live animals and medines, d)Economic, resource utilization and management, and environmental sustainability, e)Compatative market oriented production, decreasing the cost of production and maintainance of Food Safety Standards of World Trade Organisation. <br /><br />The Nepaleses livestock production systems can not remain untouched with the world trend. It is high time to review and discuss the issues in deapth to maintain the sustainablity and as well as to mitigate the rural poverty so as to benefit the smallholders livestock based livelihoods production systems.<br /><br />In this regard, decrease the cost of production in a sustainable basis for the transformation subsistence livestock production systmes into market oriented commercialised production is critical for the improvement of the majority of rural livelihood. As the majority of the smallholders live in rural areas and depends on livestock based livelihoods, sustainable use of the natural resources to balance the conservation and livelihood is very important. In this book, the existing livestock production systems and the management of available forage resources are analysed in depth and strategies have been proposed for the sustainable use and livelihoods improvement of the smallholder livestock producers.<br /> <br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjM0BlP0Q-UDuFVbTwjJzrv1iqE_msPnoxtR9RK_es8En4Rlum4UK1KzB1sUETqHbhR_KKQpiwSBIuuXY378066mUT850MS2_j3NuURZO9c-7f1gquHJNC9PUsSWlIAym-O_wJ5uNL8/s1600-h/Cattle+grazing+in+Barju+lake.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjM0BlP0Q-UDuFVbTwjJzrv1iqE_msPnoxtR9RK_es8En4Rlum4UK1KzB1sUETqHbhR_KKQpiwSBIuuXY378066mUT850MS2_j3NuURZO9c-7f1gquHJNC9PUsSWlIAym-O_wJ5uNL8/s200/Cattle+grazing+in+Barju+lake.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5087441521408881426" /></a><br /><br /><strong>Livestock Population and Distribution</strong><br />The population of livestock were- cattle (7.02 m including yak/chauris), buffaloes (4.2 m), sheep (0.81 m), goats (7.4 m), pigs (0.9 m), fowl (23.0 m.) and ducks (0.39 m) in Nepal in 2005/06 (ABPSD, 2006). The estimated population of Yak and Chauris are 95,400, horses-20100, mules and asses-6000 and pigeons 1845200 in 2001/02 (CBS 2006). <br /><br /> <strong>Livestock Holding per Households</strong> <br /><br />Livestock are reared even by landless people- involved in non-agricultural activities. So, the number of households involved in livestock farming is large in Nepal and almost all farm family keep some animals. Over 3017,500 households are rearing some kind of livestock Average livestock number per family is 4.9 in Nepal. The types and number of livestock holding vary from region to region. The number of livestock per households increases, as per the altitude range. The number of livestock per households in Southern belt is 3.9 heads whereas at Northern belt the number of livestock per family is four fold high i.e. 9.6 excluding poultry. The types of livestock raised and the use of livestock much more depends on their cultural background. However, the commercial farming is adopted by all ethnic group e.g. commercial poultry farming. The livestock are even reared by the poor and landless families who do not have enough on-farm activities For example, the households with less than 0.5 ha of land keep some 25 percent of the livestock and the households with “no land” keep some 11 percent of the total livestock. So, the intervention in livestock development could provide income as well employment to eradicate rural poverty. <br /> <br /><strong> Contribution of Livestock </strong><br /><br /><strong>Sources of Nutrition (Milk, meat and eggs)</strong><br />• Milk: The milch animals are cattle, buffaloes, Nak and Chauris; milk from ewes and she-goat are also consumed in lesser amount but not commonly marketed. The average milk production from a Nepali cow is estimated 325 lt./cow/yr, and from buffaloes is 900 lt./buffaloes/yr contrary to improved cattle and buffaloes 1250 and 1200 lit/lactation respectively. Nepal produced total of 1312,140 Mt of milk from 1988,140 milch animals during FY 2005/06 (ABPSD, 2006). Out of the total milk the contribution of Nak milk is is about 1,631 mt/year. Most of the milk produced is consumed locally and/or converted into ghee, only about 10 percent of the total production is processed for marketed. Dairy Development Corporation alone is collecting and processing 70,128 mt of raw milk, equal quantity of milk are collected by other private dairies. The Average milk availability per person is 57.7 Lt/yr, The present milk consumption in Nepal is far below compared to South Asian Countries 69 Lt and Developed Countries 213 lt) (NLSS, 2004). <br /><br />• Meat: The major sources of meat are buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs and poultry. Legally, only male animals are slaughtered and consumed for meat. All ethnic communities prefer goats' meat (chevon). The meat from buffaloes, pigs and poultry are relatively cheaper and generally not consumed by higher cast e.g. Brahmin. Similarly, the Muslims do not eat pigs. In Himalayan regions fresh blood of is also consumed which is drained from live Yaks/Chauris. Though beef are not eaten, but the Sherpa people freely consume yak steaks (dried meat of yak/chauri's). The total production of meat is 219,205 Mt during FY 2005/06 ABPSD, 2006). The share of buffalo meat is 64.8 and goat is 19.5 and pigs and poultry is 7.2 and 7.2 respectively. Besides the above quantity it is estimated that 5 Mt of yak meat is produced annually (FAO 1989) (Table 3.3). The Average milk meat consumption is 9.6 kg/year and egg 26.4 number/year. <br /> <br />• Eggs: The major sources of egss are hen and ducks. The total production of eggs 600,800 thousands number of eggs during FY 2005/06 and contribution of hen is oabout 98 percent (ABPSD, 2006). <br /> <br /> The supply of animal products is assumed much lower than the dietary requirements of the total population. The requirement of the dietary energy is estimated to be lesser than the requirement i.e. 2,220 calories/day/person, and the share of animal products are less than 6 percent; which is far below then other developed Asian countries like Japan (19.3 %), Australia (29.2%) and New Zealand (35.1%) (RAPA, 1989). The livestock by-products are considered as a luxurious food items, not commony affordable by the poor families. By enhancing the animal production the availability of dietary energy could be increased for better human health conditions in Nepal.<br /> <br /><strong> Sources of Manure</strong><br /><br />Dung and litters are important sources of plant nutrients in Nepal especially in mountain and hills where the transportation is a major problem. The uses of chemical fertiliser for crops are very low. It is estimated that the use of total plant nutrients in Nepal was 24 kg/ha only, whereas in the neighbouring countries like India the use of plant nutrients is 65.2 kg/ha and in China 262.0 kg/ha (FAO/RAPA, 1990). To increase the food grain production and to maintain the fertility status of soil, animal manure plays an important role. Manure is the essential input into the crop production systems; the increased crop yield is directly coorelated with the higher number of livestock per households in Hills. Composting and tethering the animals on cropland for manuring is a traditional practice. It is estimated that livestock and pigs combinely produce over 47 m. Mt of manure, which is equivalent to 15. m Mt of Nitrogen Manure obtained from livestock is balanced and rich in plant nutrients. The Nitrogen content in cattle and buffaloes' manure is 0.25 and 0.33 percent respectively on fresh matter basis (Oli 1987). Livestock in the form of urine also contributes additional manure. However, most of the faecal and urine are either lost during grazing and could not be used as manuring for crops. Recently, due to the shortage of fuelwood large proportions of faecal materials are burned for domestic purposes. CBS, (2006) estimates that animaldung contributes to produce 21,626 GJ energy as a fuel and in the form of bio-gas 2078 GJ in 2005/06 (CBAS, 2006).<br /> <br /> To meet the crisis of fuelwood and to promote dung as sources of plant nutrients Government of Nepal has implementing programme on biogas plant installation, which converts the dung and urine into cooking gas and slurry. Slurry is a good source of plant nutrients. So far, 30,000 plants have been installed in Southern Terai and Middle hills and up to FY 2,000 over 125,000 plants have targeted to establish (Pande 1996).<br /> <br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh06hIDviUoKumJZoF-yhVKOs0qMeYeqyhDZmUyPKmxV2yM9_Hxmr38bjvWUJuv_M62LK1a_2Ofpajg6oXGrKUtRCW66t5fzhLytdE_Kvyf-ccn84sZnLvsVLmbDABeDeMSy14Py5ha/s1600-h/Ploughing+in+Tasitang+II.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh06hIDviUoKumJZoF-yhVKOs0qMeYeqyhDZmUyPKmxV2yM9_Hxmr38bjvWUJuv_M62LK1a_2Ofpajg6oXGrKUtRCW66t5fzhLytdE_Kvyf-ccn84sZnLvsVLmbDABeDeMSy14Py5ha/s200/Ploughing+in+Tasitang+II.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5087450089868636978" /></a><br /><br /><strong> Sources of Draught Power</strong> <br /><br />Cattle and buffaloes as draught animal are the major source of agricultural power. However, the use of mechanical power in agricultural work is increasing these days. There were only 7,156 tractors for agricultural work was registered during 2002/03 to 2005/06 (CBS, 2006). However, it was observed that the mechanical power are used in government Farms only. Furthermore, the tractors owned by private sector are used for transportation of goods rather than agricultural work. The male cattle (oxen) and male buffaloes are generally used for ploughing and other drought works. Generally the female animals are not used for draught purpose. There are 2794,487 cattle oxen and 212,576 buffalo oxen used for draught purpose; rearing bullock for agricultural work is rapidely declining. Similarly, in Northern belt Yak, Jhopkyo, goats (Chyangra) and sheep (Bhyanglung) are used as pack animals. In Northern belt Yak is the only animal to carry goods for the Himalayan expeditions. Yak can carry 60-80 kg of weight. Besides the ruminants, horses, mule, ponies are also the major pack animals in northern belt. Shrestha and Sherchand (1988) estimated that contribution of livestock to produce power is over 0.99 million H.P., in which cattle generate over 90 percent only. However, in some cases farmers do not use animal power for agricultural use because of religious believes, for example, in Lele, Lalitpur (Shrestha et al., 1984). Though draught animals do most of the tillage work, still these animals are under utilised. Most of the periods of the year they remain idle and are economic burden to the farmers. Oli (1986) found that animals are only used for a period of two months in a year for agricultural work in eastern hills. In Southern Terai where animals are used for pulling cards and where the cropping intensity is higher the contribution of draught power could be more.<br /> <br /><strong>Sources of Hide and Skin</strong> <br /><br />The hide and skin is the major by-product of livestock. Nepal produces over 2.1 million of hide and skin (Shrestha and Sherchand, 1988). At present, there are 1bout 15 major hide and skin processing industries in Nepal, but most of these are closed and only few are functioning. Among the major leather industries, the Narayani Leathers is the largest exporter in Nepal. Narayani leathers alone exported 3308430 sq ft during the FY 2060/61 (2003/2004) (Kantipur Daily, April 13, 2004). The total export during the FY 2003/04 was 5803223 sq ft. in Nepal Other leather factories are Marium Leather, Everest Leathers, Global Leathers in Nepal. Hide and Skin Processing Pvt. LTD has the capacity of 600,000 pieces/year and others are Hetaunda Leather Industries (capacity 15,000 Pisces/year), Nepal Leather Tanning Industries Pvt. LTD (capacity 2,000 piece/year) besides Bansbari Leather and Shoe Factory (capacity 30,000 piece/year). Most of the raw products are exported to India and China; the domestic consumption is very low. The rawhide Collection and Development Company LTD has sole right to collect and export. During FY 1988/89 the Company collected about 170,000 numbers of hides. The production of hide is much lower than its potentiality because most of the meat consumed in Nepal is with skin. Only the non-Hindu consumed unskined meat.<br /> <br /><strong>Sources of Wool and Hair</strong><br /><br /> Wool is mainly produced by sheep, and hairs are produced by goats. The estimated production of wool is about 586988 kg in FY 2005/06 (ABPSD, 2006). The locally produced wool is used in Radi, Pakhi making industries. The local wool is of low quality and is not considered for carpet making industries. Since the carpet industries are flourishing, most of the carpet wool is imported either from New Zealand and/or from Tibet. During the FY 1994/95. Nepal imported 20,000 Mt of raw wool (APROSC 1995). Edeavour to promote carpet type wool producing sheep in Nepal was attempted but was not been very successful. <br /> <br /> No systematic data are available of the production of hair from goats and other animals such as Yak/Chauris, horses and rabbit. However, a reasonable amount of hair are produced and used locally to make various goods such as bags, rope and woollen goods.<br /> <br /><strong> Sources of Cash</strong> <br /><br />Livestock is a major source of cash income. Livestock serves as an asset. The livestock are considering as a source of fixed property like land. Rural farmers use livestock as a live Bank. At the time of crisis the live animals especially castrated buck, milch cow or buffaloes, oxen are sold for cash income.<br /> The live animals and livestock products are the main source to eject cash from urban to rural areas in Nepal. For example, there are over 1,375 milk producers’ cooperatives in over 51 districts in the contry associated with Central Dairy Cooperative Association Ltd (CDCAN undated). The Government owned Dairy Development Corporation (DDC) alone purchase about 0.2 million litres of raw milk everyday from farmers of 39 districts (DDC, 2005), equal quantities of raw milk are purchased by other private dairies. During 2003/04 the DDC alone paid Rs 1,052 million (Rs 70 =1 US$) as a milk price to the milk producer farmers through its 875 Milk Producers Cooperative Societies (MPCS) (http://www.dairydev.com.np). Similar amount have been paid by other 200 private dairies working in milk processing and marketing. The dairy enterprises in Nepal are dominated by small farmers. It is estimated that over 423, 000 dairy farmers are directly and another 10 percent indirectly involved in dairy enterprises (CDCAN, undated). <br /> <br /> <br /><strong>Sentiment/religious value</strong> <br /><br />Animals are highly respected with religious value. Cow is regarded as second mother of the Hindu people, and other domestic animal such as oxen; dog, elephant and crow are worshipped during the Tihar festival. Killing female animals are against the law. However, male animal and poultry bird such as cock is sacrificed to the temple to please the Hindu God. Rearing animals are symbol of prosperity and social status.<br /> <br /><strong> General description livestock breeds</strong><br /><strong>Cattle (Native: Bos indicus; European: Bos taurus):</strong><br /><br />Cattle are primarily raised to provide draft power for agricultural work and for manure. Total population of cattle is about 7002,912 in which cross bred comprises about 8.7 percent. About 2297,100 agricultural households (over over 68 percent of total agricultural families) are raring cattles. The major native breeds of acttle are Lulu, Achhami, Siri, Khaila, Terai, and Hilly. These native cows have short lactation period (180-200 days), long calving interval (12-24 months), and low milk yield capabilities (less than 300 lt/lactation). Being a Hindu dominated country, killing and exportation of cattle is restricted in Nepal so the number of unproductive cattle is increasing. However, the cattle population is decreasing each year. There are different native breeds of cattle in Nepal such as–<br /> <br />• Lulu cattle: Lulu cattle are found in Mustang, Dolpa and Manang districts. The average body weight is 125 kg.<br />• Achhami cattle: Achhami cattle are found in Achham, Bajhang, Bajura and Doti districts, these animals are the smallest cattle breed in world. The average body weight is 124 kg<br />• Siri cattle: Siri cattle are found in eastern hills like Ilam, Panchathar and are considered as extinct from Nepal The average body weight is 286 kg.<br />• Hill cattle (Kirko): Hill cattle are small in body size and weigh about 165 kg lives body weight. The Hill cattle locally called 'kirko' are usually kept for agricultural work such as ploughing. These cattle are the prime source of manure. The milk production is about 370 lt. per lactation.<br />• Terai cattle (Zebu): The Terai cattle are found at Southern belt and are believed to be developed from the indiscriminate crossing of Indian cattle with hill cattle. They are bigger in size compared to the hill cattle and the output of milk and drought are also high. The average body weight is 210 kg.<br /><br /> The characteristics features and performance of native cattle:<br />• The native cattle are resistant to most of the tropical diseases,<br />• It has ability to better utilisation of coarse roughage, <br />• It can withstand more heat and cold conditions,<br />• It is adapted to thrive well in harsh conditions,<br />• It can clime steep hills and mountains for grazing,<br />• The age of first calving ranges 32-52 months,<br />• The milk yield ranges 360-760 Lt/lactation<br />• The lactation length is about 310 days,<br />• Body weight of mature male is about 310 kg and of female 220 kg, <br />• The most common breeding season is August and calving takes place in April.<br /> <br /> The preference of pure bred cattle: Compared to the native cattle, the exotic cattle's are susceptible to most of the tropical diseases, demands high quality feeds and management practices. The age of first calving ranges from 29-31 months, milk yield ranges 4,000-6,000 Lt/lactation. Compared to either purebred exotic cattle and/or native the crosses of these two are intermediate types. The age of first calving of these cross animals is 28-36 months and milk yield ranges 1,400-1,800 Lt/lactation. <br /> <br /> It is recommended that even with better management and feeding practices, the purebred dairy cattle with high level of exotic inheritance should not be recommended in Nepalese conditions. It is observed that 50 per cent native inheritance have performed better than those with pure exotic breeds are. However, under intensive management conditions crossbred cows are being more popular in Nepal especially around the periphery of urban areas. Most of these dairy cows are imported from India. Crossbred cows are found more efficient to convert feed into milk compared to buffaloes. <br /> <br /> Government of Nepal have been given priority to develop the crossbred cattle and has established different Cattle Development Farms viz. <br />a) Livestock Development Farm, Jiri: Brown Swiss cattle, <br />b) Livestock Development Farm, Khumaltar (Presently under NARC): Holstein and Jersey <br />c) Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara: Achhami. <br /><br />Description of Major exotic breeds in Nepal: <br />• Holstein-Friesian: It is one of the highest yielding dairy breeds in the world. The breed was found suitable for Southern and Middle hills under well-managed conditions. The bulls and frozen semen are extensively used in AI for cross breeding programme to upgrade the milk production potentiality of native cows. <br />• Jersey: It is a famous dairy breed of cattle, noted for small body size, low feed intake with high milk yield of rich fat content. The breed is found suitable for Southern and Middle hills. The bulls and frozen semen are extensively used for cross breeding programme to upgrade the milk production potentiality of native cows. First introduced in 1,957 from US government under American Heifer Project in Nepal. Presently, it is raised at Bovine Research Centre, Khumaltar, Lalitpur <br />• Brown Swiss: It is a famous multipurpose breed. Presently, the breed is raised at Livestock Development Farm, Jiri. The bulls and frozen semen are used to upgrade the milk production potentiality of native cows in high mountains. <br /> <br /><strong> Buffaloes (Bos buballis):</strong> <br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjxAHb6nZChzlxkicrE_wXUVbbs_agUiqWf_2Dqcdj8tnTslD62tv3bC5h9eGUBq5F5PYFGPueZKB4FnGLc98f-lrRhqU8_RdFMUnfDimJ8RiXfn_EyeAQruDDSj8zHPnO02m1oDpI/s1600-h/Buffalo-+Kunta+2006.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjxAHb6nZChzlxkicrE_wXUVbbs_agUiqWf_2Dqcdj8tnTslD62tv3bC5h9eGUBq5F5PYFGPueZKB4FnGLc98f-lrRhqU8_RdFMUnfDimJ8RiXfn_EyeAQruDDSj8zHPnO02m1oDpI/s200/Buffalo-+Kunta+2006.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5093533516467673762" /></a><br /><br />The buffaloes are multi-purpose animals, primarily reared for milk and secondarily for meat, draught and manure production. The buffaloes are raised by well -off ond/or middle class families, and are considered as a symbol of social and economical status. About 15,86,800 households (47 percent of the agricultural households) are rearing buffloes. Total buffalo population is 4.2 million in which improved pure bred or crosses are 24.6 percent. Out of the total production, over 71 percent of the milk, and 65 percent of the meat shared by buffaloes (Table -3.3). Each year the population of buffaloes are increasing by 2.3%. The buffalo's milk is paid higher price than cattle's milk based on fat content. On average buffalo milk contain 6.5 percent fat compared to cow milk 4.5 percent fat. Contrary to the milk buffolo meats are considered of lower value and are sold at lower rate in comparison to chevon. Buffaloes are reared at lower altitude and the milk production is 900 for local and 1200 for improved) lit/lactation. Buffaloes are the most valued and cared animals. Most of the milch buffaloes are stall-fed.<br /> The major native breeds are Lime, Parkote, Gaddi, and Terai buffaloes. Native buffalos produces about 962 - 1226 liter of milk with the lactating period of 267-423 days and the long calving interval (20. to 21.5 months)<br /> The native breeds of buffaloes are of two types: <br />• Lime: The Lime breed is quite common in middle hills of Nepal. The animal is small in body size, brown in colour, sickle shaped curl horn and white belt around neck. The average body weight is 311 kg.<br />• Gaddi: The Gaddi breed is found in found in far western region and are considered as a good milker. The average body weight is 452 kg.<br />• Parkote: The Parkote breed is common in Southern Terai belt of Nepal. The animal is medium in size, black in colour, long shored like horn. The average body weight is 341 kg.<br />• The characteristic features of the native buffaloes are:<br />• The age of first calving ranges 48-66 months,<br />• The milk yield ranges 600-1,100 Lt/lactation<br />• The calving interval ranges from 383-621 days,<br />• The lactation length is about 221-633 days.<br />• Arna (Bubalus arnae): Arna is a wild swamp buffalow found inside the Koshi-Tappu Wildlife Conservation Park <br /> <br /> Generally, the native milk production from these native breeds varies from 926 – 993 lt./yr. with high fat contents (7.2 percent). <br /> <br /> Description of major exotic buffalo breed:<br /> Murrah: Murrah is one of the most famous dairy buffalo breed in the world. Officially this breed was introduced in 1967 from India. HMG/Nepal has been upgrading native buffalo through crossbreeding program using Murrah breed. Under HMG/N, Department of Livestock Services, two buffalo development farms are established viz.:<br /> Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara, and <br /> Tarahara Livestock Development Farm (Presently, under NARC).<br /> <br /> The farms are promoting crossbreed of Murrah buffalo. Pure Murrah buffalo bulls have been imported from India and are distributed among the farmers. HMG/N has been implementing AI programme in buffaloes also and is using Murrah semen. To upgrade the local buffaloes natural breeding program has also been carried out in the country. <br /> <br /> Murrah and the crosses of /Murrah are found superior than local buffaloes. The comparative characteristics of native and Murrah buffaloes in Nepalese conditions are:<br /> The performance of the Murrah buffaloes' is:<br />• The age of first calving is about 42 months,<br />• The milk yield is about 1,688 Lt/lactation<br />• The calving interval is 587 days,<br />• The lactation length is about 333 days.<br /> <br /> Performance of Murrah buffaloes in Nepalese conditions is very good. However, the pure bred buffaloes are more susceptible to most of the tropical diseases, demands high quality feeds and management practices. Compared to either purebred exotic buffaloes and/or native the crosses of these two are intermediate types. The age of first calving of crosses is 47-52 months and milk yield ranges 967-1645 Lt/lactation. The calving interval is 438-624 days and the lactation length is about 215-356 days. <br /> <br /><strong> Yak & Nak (Bos grunniens) and Chauris</strong> <br /><br />Yak and Nak are pure breed Himalayan cattle. The scientific name is Bos grunniens. Yak and Nak reared at higher altitude regions and seldom comes below 3,000 m. Yak is raised in 22 Himalayan districts of Nepal along the Tibetan boarders. The estimated population of the Yak/Chauries is about 95,000 number (2001/02) and about 14200 households are rearing yak/chairies (CBS, 2006). It has long hairs and pointed horns. The adult body weight of a male is about 245 kg and of female Nak is about 215 kg. Yak and Nak provides milk and meat for human consumption. Castrated yak used as pack animal and could carry up to 120 kg of weight. Yak skins are used for making bags, sacks and other materials. Fibbers are used for making ropes and blanket (‘radi’). Yak steak is quite popular among the tourists. FAO/RAPA (1994) estimate that the total production of yak steak is 5 Mt/yr.<br /> <br /> Yak & cattle and vice versa are crossed to produce hybrids. The female hybrids are called Chauris. Depending on breeding practices Chauris are of different types. The progeny of Nak (female Yak) and hill cattle bull are called Dimjo chauri and the progeny of Yak with hill cow is called Urang chauri. The male hybrids called Jhopkyo and are sterile. The male Jhopkyo are more docile and are capable to carry more weight than either of the parents. The male hybrids are mainly used as pack animals.<br /> <br /> The female Chauris are more productive than Nak. The hybrids are more adaptive to lower temperature and are reared at the intermediate zone between cattle and Yaks (Joshi, 1982; Robinson 1992; Miller 1993). The population of the pure Yak/Nak is rapidly declining. It is estimated that there are 56 thousands of Yak and Chauris in Nepal (Miller, 1993). Out of the total Yak/Chauris population the pure Yak/Nak population is only 10,000.<br /> The performances of the Yak/Nak are:<br />• The age of first calving is 48 months,<br />• The milk yield is 470 Lt/lactation<br />• The calving interval is 687 days,<br />• The lactation length is about 174 days.<br /> <br /> The performances of the Chauris' are:<br />• The age of first calving is 36 months,<br />• The milk yield is 1960 Lt/lactation<br />• The calving interval is 425 days,<br />• The lactation length is 254-400 days.<br /> <br /> Generally breeding takes during the months of August to November and calving takes place in the months of April to July.<br /> <br /> Milk production capability of a Chauris is more than Nak. The milk produced from Nak and Chauris are used for making Yak cheese, which is quite popular among the tourist. There are altogether 20 Yak cheese (11 under Dairy Development Corporation and 9 under private sector) Pande 1996. Total Yak cheese production is about 115 Mt in FY 1994/95. HMG/Nepal has established a Yak Farm at Solukhumbu in 1973/74 for the development of Yak/Nak and Chauris. There was another Yak Farm at Dolpa, which was closed down in 1994 (Pande, 1996).<br /> <br /><strong> Sheep (Ovis aries):</strong><br /><br /> Sheep are reared for wool, meat, pack, manure and milk and about 67,700 households are rearing sheep in Nepal mostly in Hills and mountains. The estimated population sheep is about 0.8 million, in which improved cross bred comprises about 4.6 percent. The sheep population is decreasing each year. The total production of sheep meat (mutton) is 2,737 Mt and the wool production was 586,988 Mt in 2005/06. The average production of the wool is very low (0.7 kg/head/year). The sheep population is decreasing each year. The major native breeds are Bhyanglung, Dhorel, Baruwal, Kage and Lampuchhre. The native wool is of lower quality and is used for making Radi/Pakhi and other woollen products for local consumption. Only the wool obtained from Bhyanglung sheep are used in carpet industries. <br /> <br /> The government of Nepal, Department of Livestock Services, sheep development programme has been carried out in three different Farms namely Chitlang Sheep Development Farm, Panchasaya Khola Sheep Development Farm and Livestock Development Farm Pokhara. Besides, the DLS Farms research on sheep farming has been conducting at Guthichaur Sheep Research, Jumla, Agricultural Research Centre Pakhribas and Lumle under NARC. <br /> The major breeds are Baruwal, Kage and Bhanghlung. The performance of the Native sheep is:<br />• The age of first lambing is 17- 25 months,<br />• The lambing interval 360- 365 days<br />• The average body weight of the adult animals is 25-30 kg,<br />• The wool yield is 0.3 to 1.3 kg/sheep/yr.<br /> <br /> Descriptions of the major native sheep breed:<br />• Baruwal: Baruwal sheep is raised under migratory system in mountains and high hills. Baruwal breed comprises 63 percent of the total sheep population. The average body weight is 35 kg. Total population of this breed is about 578,898. The wool is coarse type and used for making Radi/Pakhi.<br />• Kage: Kage sheep is found in middle hills specially Kathmandu and Pokhara valley. Kage breed comprises 21 percent (192,966 number) of the total sheep population. The average body weight is male -32, female 22 kg).<br />• Lampuchhre: Lampuchhre sheep is found in Southern belt and, are reared by 'Gaderiya' community. Lampuchhre breed comprises 12 per cent (110266 number) of the total sheep population. The average body weight is 30 kg.<br />• Bhyanglung: Bhyanglung sheep are raised in Trans-Himalayan region under migratory system. Bhyanglung breed comprises only 4 percent (367,554 number) of the total sheep population. The average body weight is 26 kg. The wool of the Bhayanglung is suitable for carpet making. <br /> <br /> Description of major exotic sheep breed: <br />• Merino: Merino is one of the finest wool breeds in world. Presently it is raised and studied at Sheep/Goat Research Centre, Guthichaur Jumla and Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara.<br />• Polwarth: This breed of sheep is raised in Sheep/Goat Research Centre, Guthichaur Jumla and Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara. The breeding ram is used for cross breeding programme to up grade the native Baruwal breed. <br />• Rambouillet: It was introduced in 1957 under the American Heifer Project. Presently it is raised at Panchasayakhola Sheep Development Farm, Nuwakot. The ram is used for cross breeding to up grade the native Kage breed.<br />• Border-Leicester: It is raised at Panchasayakhola Sheep Development Farm, Nuwakot and Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara.<br />• Romney Mars: It was introduced in 1995 under GTZ support from Germany mainly to promote carpet wool production in Nepal. The sheep are raised at Panchasayakhola Sheep Development Farm, Nuwakot and Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara.<br /> <br /> In the recent year's, carpet making industries are flourishing in Nepal. Nepal is importing over 20,000 Mt of raw wool annually mainly from New Zealand (APROSC 1995). To develop a substitute of the imported carpet wool Government of Nepal has been promoting carpet wool producing sheep in the country. Upgrading of native sheep breed revealed the potentiality for carpet wool production in Nepal. Baruwal has been upgrade (50% blood level) with Polwarth and Merino breed for improving wool quality. Wool from half bred sheep ( Polwarth x Baruwal), medium type wool of 35 micron with 23 bulk value, can successfully mixed up to 80 percent to make high quality carpet.Various studies/reports has been published on potentiality of carpet wool production in the country e.g. APROSC (1995), GTZ (1994) and many others. However, it is assumed that under the present conditions of sheep population, available feed resources and management practices, it does not seems possible to substitute even by 10 percent of the importation of the New Zealand wool in Nepal.<br /> <br /><strong> Goats (Capra hircus)</strong><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiT7ZdAu6fW_E1hleo5YTIK-Au6eDHiMc_kCUrYhKARvTSd_3E09mba6fnGzpftvM724IJLlzJfELwIf1fAMNdvqR3XaQE-JBPa8H-4V8Tb6pTU-2me0SUqZfAp7Sz6uM-Tj0uaIZ7G/s1600-h/Goats+are+widely+used+as+a+poverty+reduction+programme.JPG"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiT7ZdAu6fW_E1hleo5YTIK-Au6eDHiMc_kCUrYhKARvTSd_3E09mba6fnGzpftvM724IJLlzJfELwIf1fAMNdvqR3XaQE-JBPa8H-4V8Tb6pTU-2me0SUqZfAp7Sz6uM-Tj0uaIZ7G/s200/Goats+are+widely+used+as+a+poverty+reduction+programme.JPG" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5093530183573052050" /></a><br /><br /> The goat is the most popular species among the domesticated animals, even landeless and non-agricultural households are also rearing goats as a source of meat and cash generation. The goat farming is widely practiced as a means for poverty alliviation in rural sectors; adopted by government as well as non-government agencies. The estimated population of goats is 7.4 million in which about 13.7 percent are cross bred goats. The goat population is growing by 2.4% each year. Goats are used for meat, pack, manure, and milk. The total production of goat meat (chevon) was 42,820 Mt in 2005/06. The major native breed of goats area Chyangra, Sihal, Khari and Terai goats. <br /> <br /> The performance of the native goats are:<br />• The age of first kidding ranges from 345-365 days,<br />• The kidding interval is 264-336 days<br />• Kidding percentage is 1.73,<br />• The average body weight of the adult male is 24-45 kg,<br /><br /> There are three breeds of native goats.<br /> <br />• Khari/hill goat: Khari goat is found in Hills and comprises about 50 per cent of the total goat population. These Khari breeds are prolific with high twinning rate (57.0 %) higher kid survival rate (90-93%) and compatible with Baruwal sheep flock in the hills and mountain with a number of kids weaned per year per doe is 1.71.The average body weight of the female is 24 and male is 28 kg.<br />• Sinhal: Sinhal goat is found in high hills and mountains of the country. The Sinhal goat population comprises about 16 per cent of the total goat population. The average body weight of the female is 28 and male is 34 kg.<br />• Chyangra: Chyangra goats are raised under migratory system in mountains and are considered as valuable for fine Pashmina fiber production suitable for high quality garments. The average body weight of the female is 29 and male is 35 kg.The Chyangra comprises only about 1 percent of the total goat population. <br /> <br /> Description of major exotic goat breed:<br /> The performance of the Exotic goats is:<br />• The age of first kidding is 735-751 days,<br />• The kidding interval 238-315 days,<br />• Kidding percentage is 1.17-1.45.<br />• The average body weight of the adult male is 44-68 kg.<br /> <br />• Sanan: Sanan is a famous milk-producing breed among goats. It was introduced in 1966 from Israel for crossing with native goats to increase milk production potentiality. Presently it is raised at Panchasayakhola Sheep Development Farm, Nuwakot and Chitlang Sheep Development Farm, Makawanpur.<br />• Jamunapari: It is a duel purpose Indian breed for meat and milk production. Presently it is raised at Goat Research Centre, Bandipur, Tanahu and Goat Development Farm, Budhitola, Dhangadhi.<br />• Barberi: Barberi is a meat-producing breed. Presently it is raised at Goat Development Farm, Budhitola, Dhanagadhi.<br />• Beetal: It is raised at Livestock Development Farm, Gaughat, Banke.<br /> <br /> Government of Nepal has been given priority on goat production. At Dhangadhi Goat Development Farm has been established under DLS. Research on goats has been conducted at Goat Research Centre, Bandipur and Tanahu under NARC. Research/studies on goats has also been done at IAAS, Rampur and Agricultural Research Centre Pakhribas and Lumle, presently under NARC.<br /> <br /> The goats are much preferred than sheep and or large ruminants in Nepal. The major causes are:<br />• Low capital investment,<br />• Relatively small body size,<br />• Higher prolificacy,<br />• High demand for meat,<br />• Low risk of animal casualty,<br />• Lower feed requirement,<br />• Easy to handle,<br />• Goats are hardy, inherent ability to utilise mountain terrain, and <br />• Goats are multipurpose animals.<br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNgU07Hwz3cOJxUt7hL9jmdG4r82NxIC6L_Hh6Fn-CU_SH0n6oTgj0JBLZ7rrWIyd7zHgAVjQiTBwO5kXK3373hmzRAmxVgpFjxhYHKISJXFOWieNP7nlaXVKqoDdNkZoOhgADzu1y/s1600-h/Sungur.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNgU07Hwz3cOJxUt7hL9jmdG4r82NxIC6L_Hh6Fn-CU_SH0n6oTgj0JBLZ7rrWIyd7zHgAVjQiTBwO5kXK3373hmzRAmxVgpFjxhYHKISJXFOWieNP7nlaXVKqoDdNkZoOhgADzu1y/s200/Sungur.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5087444867188405026" /></a><br /><br /><strong>Pigs (Sus domesticus)</strong><br /><br />Pigs are important animals raised for meat production. There are 960,827 pigs in Nepal, in which improved breed comprises about 40.8 percentage Total production of meat is about 15,773 Mt in 2005/06. Pigs are mainly found in Southern Terai and Middle Hills. Pigs are raised especially by Indo-Burman ethnic groups and so called scheduled cast. About 75 percent of the pig population are local and are raised by about 32,700 households. <br /> The major breeds of native pigs are Chuwache and Hurra. The pig population is growing by 4% each year. The performance of the native pigs are:<br />• The age of first farrowing is 15 months,<br />• The farrowing interval is 196 days<br />• Number of piglets per farrowing 5 - 6,<br />• The average body weight of the adult male is 51 kg and female 58 kg,<br /><br />The major native pig breeds are: . <br />• Chwache: Chwache pig is found in middle hills. The Chwache pigs are small in body size and black in colour. The average body weight of the female is 24 and male is 32 kg. Chwache breed comprises about 58 percent of the total pig population.<br />• Hurra: Hurra pig is found in Southern belt of Terai. The Hurra pigs are rusty brown in colour and are larger than Chwache pigs. The average body weight of the female is 49 and male is 45 kg.These pigs are looks like wild pig (Bandel). Hurra pigs comprise about 23 percent of the total pig population. <br />• Bampudke: Bampudke pig is a wild species is considered as a smallest hog in the world. They are rusty brown to black in colour and the average body weight of the female is 19 and male is 20 kg. <br />• Bandel: Bandel hogs are wild species found in protected/conservation areas of Nepal.<br /><br />Most of the native pigs are reared under scavenging system, good in reproductive characters and high qality meat, but are in lower body weight. Upgrading of pigs has been done through cross breeding program with exotic breeds mainly Hampshire, Yorkshire, Landrace, Tamworth, Saddle back and Fayuen. <br /> <br />Various government farms are established to promote pig production such as DLS Farm at Pokhara, Jiri, NARC farms in Tarahara, Khumaltar, Pakhribas and Lumle. The demands of pork are growing especially in the urban centres and thus the pig farming using exotic breeds are becoming popular. The growth rate of improved breed is about 7 percent (LMP, 1993).<br /> <br /> The performance of the Exotic pigs is:<br />• The age of first farrowing is 9 months,<br />• The farrowing interval is 183 days,<br />• Number of piglets per farrowing is 7-9.<br />• The average body weight of the adult male 170 kg and of female 160 kg.<br /> <br /> Description of major exotic pig breed:<br />• Yorkshire: The breed was developed in UK. The breed is white in colour. The adult body weight is about 310-450 kg and of female is 250-350 kg. It is raised at Agriculture Research Centre, Tarahara and Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara.<br />• Landrace: The breed was developed in Denmark. It was introduced in 1967 from Australia under the "Society for those who have less". The breed is white in colour; it has short legs, long pendulous ear. The adult body weight is about 310-400 kg and of female is 250-350 kg. Presently it is raised at Agriculture Research Centre, Khumaltar and Livestock Development Farm, Jiri.<br />• Hampshire: The breed was developed in UK. It is famous breed with black in colour with white belt around the chest. The adult body weight is about 270-480 kg and of female is 230-310 kg. Presently, it is raised at Agriculture Research Centre, Tarahara.<br />• Tamworth: The breed was developed in UK. The breed is golden/orange in colour. The adult body weight is about 320-450 kg and of female is 270-330 kg. Presently, it is raised at Agriculture Research Centre, Pakhribas.<br />• Pakhribas black: It is developed in Agriculture Research Centre by crossing with Fauyan (China), Tameworth (UK) and Sedal-back (UK). The breed is black in colour. The average adult body weight of male is 170 kg and of female is 160 kg. It is one of the popular breeds in eastern hills.<br />• Durock: This breed is developed in USA. It has golden/Dark brawn/coffee in colour. It is introduced and popularised by private sector Pig Farm Nakkhu, Lalitpur by Dr J.N. Rai. <br /><br />At the government farms the pigs are reared under well management practices and are offered balanced ration.<br /><br /><strong>Poultry (Gallus domesticus)</strong><br /><br />• Traditionally, poultry farming is considered as a lower call business. However, in the recent years the commercial poultry farming is emerging as an viable economical entreprises. It is estimated that over 1594,400 households are rearing poultry birds (CBS, 2006). Since last decades, commercial poultry farming for meat and eggs is being quite popular especially around the urban centres. The total population of poultry birds are 236,14,334 (2,32,21,439 fowl and 392,895 ducks) (ABPSD, 2006) in which 54.2 percent are pure bred poultry birds. Poultry birds contribute 15,835 (fowl 15,605 and ducks 230) Mt in total meat production and the total eggs production are 600,800 thousand (hen 587,219 and ducks 13,581) thousands eggs in 2005/06 (ABPSD, 2006). The poultry population is growing by 5% each year and estimated production of egg for local is 40 and 280 for pure bred hen. There are about 82 hatcheries producing broiler and layers chicken to the commercial poultry farmers. The major commecial breeds are Cobb 100, Cob 500, Kashila, Lohmann, H & N, Hyline, Marshall, and Rose 308. <br /><br />Three types of poultry breeds are raised in Nepal:<br />• Local breed: Shakini,<br />• Pure breed, and<br />• Synthetic breed.<br /><br />The types and description of local breed: <br />The native breeds are of poultry are hardy in nature, suitable for scavenging and are duel purpose, with high meat quality. Following tpypes of native poultry breeds are found in Nepal<br />• Shakini: The local Shakini breed of poultry is a small in body size, different feather colour, hardy in nature. The egg production capacity is 70 to 80 /year. The average adult body weight is 1.5 to 2.0 kg.<br />• Ghanti Khuile: The Ghanti Khuile breed of poultry is a typical bird with few feathers in enck, different feather colour, hardy in nature, noted for delecacy of meat. The egg production capacity is 60 to 80 /year. The average adult body weight of male is 1.6 and female is 1.30 kg. <br />• Puwankh Ulte: The Puwankh Ulte breed of poultry is a typical bird with outward growth of the feathers. The average adult body weight of male is 1.0 and female is 0.9 kg.<br />Description of exotic poultry breeds: <br />Pure exotic breeds of poultry birds are raised at Government Farms and are used to upgrade the native breed of poultry birds. Two types of poultry birds are raised in Nepal such as New Hampshire & Austrolorp.<br /><br />• New Hampshire: It is an American breed, brown in colour. The average body weight of adult male is 3.8 and female 2.9 kg. The egg production potentiality is 200 eggs/yr. At present the breeds is raised at Brooder Farm Banke, Livestock development Farm, Pokhara, Agriculture Centre, Khumaltar, Agriculture Research Centre, Tarahara and Parwanipur.<br />• Austrolorp: The breed is developed in Australia. The breed is black in colour. The average body weight of adult male is 3.8 and female 2.9 kg. The egg production potentiality is 200 eggs/yr. At present the breeds is raised at NARC Research Centres, Khumaltar, Tarahara and Parwanipur.<br />• Giri Raja: It was introduced and tested by Pakhribas Agriculture Centre. At present the breeds is raised at NARC Research Centres, Pakhribas,<br /><br />Synthetic breed/Commercial breeds: <br />Synthetic breeds are commercial breed (Hybrid) for egg and meat (broiler) production. The eggs and meat production is very high. Similarly, the egg production is about 250-300 per year. The broiler attains 2 to 2.5 kg in 8-10 weeks of age. The synthetic breeds of poultry birds are raised at Private sector for eggs and broiler production. Many synthetic breeds are raised by the private sector such as follows:<br /><br />• Shaver: It is developed in Canada. Both egg type and broiler type are produced and supplied by major hatchery e.g. Joshi Poultry, Balaju, Kathmandu.<br />• Babcob: is a breed of layers, developed in USA and promoted by Nepal Poultry, Kathmandu. Ratna Hatchery, Kathmandu.<br />• Key stone: is a breed of layers, developed in USA and promoted in Nepal by Khatri Industries, Kathmandu,<br />• Uni- chix: The breed is developed in Czechoslovakia.<br />• Hy- bro: is a breed of broilers, developed in USA.<br />• Arbor- Acres: is a breed of broilers, developed in USA.<br /><br /><strong>Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)</strong><br /><br />Rabbit farming for wool and meat is recent intervention on livestock production system. Economical importance of rabbit farming and technology for small scale rabbit production was introduced and popularised by ODA funded projects Pakhribas and Lumle Agricultural Centres around 1980's. In the eastern Middle hills like Dhankuta, meat type rabbit are Hy-line Californian, New Zealand white and Chinchilla were introduced and tested. Due to white fur and innocent look the rabbit farming for meat production could not be popularised in Nepal. <br /><br />In recent years Angora type rabbit for wool production was introduced by the private sector mainly to meet the demand of woollen garments for tourist. The estimated population of Angora rabbit is rearing in 30 districts of Nepal. However, the authentic data of the population is lacking. Most of the rabbit is reared in small scale. The average meat production from rabbit is 1.5 kg/each. And, from Angora type rabbit average wool production is about 1.6 kg/head/yr. The estimated wool production is about 3 Mt kg. <br /><br />Horses (Equus caballus) and Donkey (Equus asinus)<br />Horses and donkeys are mainly reared as pack animals. The mules are used for carrying groceries including firewood to food grains. The estimated population is about 0.2 million. About 100500 households are involved in equain farming in Nepal (CBS, 2006). The equines are the most neglected domestic animals in Nepal. Traditionally, farmers are crossing horses and donkey to produce mules, which are popularly used as pack animals at mountains. There is a lack of organised efforts to improve the breed of horse and donkeys. Under DLS donkeys are imported from India and Tibet for the distribution purpose to upgrade and to produce mules in Nepal. During 1986/87 to 1988/89 DLS has distributed 33 donkeys under special program at Dolpa, Humla, Jumla, Kalikot and Mugu.<br /><br /><strong>Elephant (Elephas maximus)</strong><br /><br />Elephants are reared as a pet animal and were used for transportation in the past. These days, the elephants are used for jungle Shaphari to promote tourism. There are about 200 pet elephants in Chitwan Shaphari Camp. A small number of wild elephants are also found in the national parks of Nepal. <br /><br /><br />The elephants are massive animals of body weight of adult is about 8000 kg. It has large ear and long trunk. Tusks are present in male. Puberty occurs between 8-12 yr. of age. The gestation period is 21-22 months. The calving interval is 4 years. Life expense is 80-100 yr. Elephants eat natural grasses; tree leaves and bamboo shoots in wild and domesticated elephant are fed on straw hay and paddy grains supplemented with tree leaves. The intake varies from 3 percent of the body weight. At Chitwan national Park an adult elephant is provided 250- 300 kg of ration per day including grasses, paddy and molasses. Hetaunda Cattle feed plant has prepared ration for elephant to supply Chitwan National Park.<br /><br /><strong>Major issues </strong><br /><br />Growth of urban centred commercialised farming systems: The modern, demand-driven and capital-intensive sector, producing poultry meat, eggs, pork, and sometimes milk, increasingly uses state-of-the-art technologies. This sector utilizes resources, in particular concentrate feed, efficiently - with the notable exception of fossil fuel. <br />It is rapidly expanding to meet urban demand but it is also susceptible to market upheavals; it generates little employment, poses great environmental risks because it tends to concentrate in areas with good market access, and it creates a number of new challenges for human and veterinary public health. Technology uptake has been fast, driven by commercial interests. At the same time, a traditional, resource-driven and labour-intensive sector, continues to provide a multitude of services to subsistence-oriented farms. While not efficient in terms of introduced inputs, this sector uses resources of little or no alternative uses, and for the same reason, its potential to expand beyond moderate growth rates is constrained by low technology uptake, insufficient market facilities and infrastructure, and small economies of scale. Often, these systems are closed cycles of nutrients, farm labour, energy, etc. Unless these cycles are broken, technology uptake will remain constrained. <br /> We are therefore witnessing a dualistic mode of development, with two conflicting components. First, a modern, demand-driven and capital-intensive sector, producing poultry meat, eggs, pork, and sometimes milk, increasingly uses state-of-the-art technologies. This sector utilizes resources, in particular concentrate feed, efficiently - with the notable exception of fossil fuel. It is rapidly expanding to meet urban demand but it is also susceptible to market upheavals; it generates little employment, poses great environmental risks because it tends to concentrate in areas with good market access, and it creates a number of new challenges for human and veterinary public health. Technology uptake has been fast, driven by commercial interests. At the same time, a traditional, resource-driven and labour-intensive sector, continues to provide a multitude of services to subsistence-oriented farms. While not efficient in terms of introduced inputs, this sector uses resources of little or no alternative uses, and for the same reason, its potential to expand beyond moderate growth rates is constrained by low technology uptake, insufficient market facilities and infrastructure, and small economies of scale. Often, these systems are closed cycles of nutrients, farm labour, energy, etc. Unless these cycles are broken, technology uptake will remain constrained. <br />• Subsistence production: Subsistence Nepalese farming is the major limitations to commercial livestock development. Rearing few heads of animals to fulfil the domestic need has hindered the surplus production of livestock products. Recent trend of dairy production has been curtailed due to access to market and dairy processing centres.<br />• Conventional system: Common believes towards livestock production system that livestock thrives on grazing and crop by-products limited the cultivation of quality forage crops and adequate feeding.<br />• Indiscriminate breeding practices: The ancient practices of donation of high pedigree breeding bull have been demolished by inferior animals, which deteriorated the quality of livestock in a long run. <br />• Small farm holding: The average farm size is about 0.9 ha in which farmers have to grow almost all crops for their subsistence, leaving less and/or land for forage cultivation. Too small size of land holding discouraged the rearing of large herds of less productive animals. <br />• Splitting families: The traditional combined family has been splitting, which has created a shortage of family members to look after the herds. Due to the lack of adequate manpower peoples of the northern belt are abandoning to rear large herds of animals (Yak/Chauri, sheep, goats and other). <br />• Shrinking feed resources: The natural community lands and forests resources which was previously used for free grazing has been disappearing due to acquisition for cultivation, forestation, community forestry and other uses. Thus causing extreme feed shortage and farmers has compelled to quite farming of large herds of livestock. <br />• Government policies/priorities: There is no clear policie for livestock development and the livestock sector development is not the first priority of the government. <br />• Decreasing number native breed: The native breeds such as Achhami cattle, Yak/Nak population is rapidely decreasing. <br />• Seasonal production of milk: Most of the milk is produced during flush season (mid August to mid February) where milk production exceeds the market demand where as during lean season (mid February – mid August) the production is too low to carter to consumer demand. <br />• Management and other support facilities: The support facilities such as veterinary services, concentrated feeds, breeding and others are limited and confined in accessible areas only. <br /><br /><strong>Recommendations</strong><br /><br />• Markets and marketing: The markets and marketing for livestock products and relevant inputs are very poor in the country. There are three dairies one under Government control and two under private sector. These dairies are collecting less than 10 percent of the total raw milk from the periphery of national high way. Despite these dairies, a small amount of raw milk produced at Northern (Mountains) belt is consumed by Cheese factories. Most of the raw milk of remote areas are locally utilised for domestic consumption and/or making ghee. Providing the marketing facilities their are wide scope for dairy development in Nepal.<br />• Feeds and forage development: The shortage of feeds and forage especially during winter season is a major limiting factor for enhanced livestock production. Forage cultivated is still a new intervention for the farmers. Extensive programmes and supply of genetic materials such as seeds, vegetative materials for extensive forage development would be useful to increase the production and productivity of livestock.<br />• Choices of livestock breeds: In the well access areas with infrastructure, markets and health services commercial breeds should be used (dairy cattle/buffaloes, pigs/poultry). In the rural areas of Southern and Middle belt native buffaloes, sheep, goats should be promoted. In Northern belt Yak/Nak, Chauris, sheep and mountain goats should be promoted.National Forage and Grassland Research Centrehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12680280011049738183noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2535044485904325297.post-16815887529310873492007-07-09T18:38:00.000-07:002007-08-01T09:10:51.079-07:00Forage Development in Nepal<strong>Forage Development in Nepal</strong <br /><br />> By: Rameshwar Singh Pande, 20<br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJuvEGU9doVsgU1BJGsz40vbc9L1965K-WLRB4jqBo4ZXmSS1LPU1YeyRzCEVgDFBSvYUk83Oi9B11-ErFsAa0YpBiF2h8LZqfd_FYyRzRHmrIN4vZ4knBmhbSAMMgt4yawvMb4r2r/s1600-h/RSPande+-+Community+forage+Block,+Sindhupalchok+2005.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJuvEGU9doVsgU1BJGsz40vbc9L1965K-WLRB4jqBo4ZXmSS1LPU1YeyRzCEVgDFBSvYUk83Oi9B11-ErFsAa0YpBiF2h8LZqfd_FYyRzRHmrIN4vZ4knBmhbSAMMgt4yawvMb4r2r/s200/RSPande+-+Community+forage+Block,+Sindhupalchok+2005.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5093764143326567106" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><strong>1.0 Genesis</strong>Feeds and forage development especially under farmers field conditions is a new intervention in Nepal. Traditionally, grazing based feeding system supplemented with crop residues is practiced by majority of the farmers, supplementations of high cultivated forage or concentrated feeding is exceptional especially to local cattle. However, wide ranges of tree leaves are fed to animals since long ago. System development of feeds and forage cultivation practices, believed to be started during Rana period through introduction of Jursey cow and temperate pasture species like white clover (Trifolium repens) (Pande, 1997) in Nepal. Since, then the activities of feeds and forage development were given least priority by the government until 1980's.<br /><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqlYtzJGpaIZP2KuMhtWgc0fXPOE8ovVe0rHIURluZDYeHX0WOgMy6xMNx0Jb_VAlu1nxNVa1PEkJlQFMteCYdVLaY4UFWYUxiyutxWO6spHlxmamkNuNfQJbDlYTKhALHP_A94nIy/s1600-h/Ladies+with+fodder,+Tarahara+2006.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqlYtzJGpaIZP2KuMhtWgc0fXPOE8ovVe0rHIURluZDYeHX0WOgMy6xMNx0Jb_VAlu1nxNVa1PEkJlQFMteCYdVLaY4UFWYUxiyutxWO6spHlxmamkNuNfQJbDlYTKhALHP_A94nIy/s200/Ladies+with+fodder,+Tarahara+2006.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5086495666531087058" /></a><br />07<br /><br /><br />Though the Agriculture development Board was established in 1937 (1994 BS), however, significant achievement on feeds and forage improvements at farmers level started only after the interventions of two projects namely ADB funded Livestock Development Project (LDP) and UNDP funded Northern Belt Pasture Development Program (NBPDP). Before 1980's, forage cultivation was confined within the government Farms only. A total of 36 ha of croplands were under fodder cultivation in 1980. Since, the popularity of dairy farming in Southern belt and Middle hills, practices of forage cultivation is also increasing. Presently, over 2,000 ha of different types of fodder crops are grown. Similarly, only 177 ha of land were under improved pastures in 1980. To date, over 8,500 ha of native rangelands have been improved by various means and over 89 animal feed mills are established who prepare and supply all kind of livestock and poultry feeds. Recently, the pace of rangeland improvement activities is in decreasing trend, mainly due to the termination of the NBPDP.<br />The area under fodder cultivation is less than 0.05 percent of the total agricultural land. Similarly, only 0.5 percent of the total rangelands have been improved so far. When compared with the other countries the land devoted for fodder cultivation is negligible. The developed countries have allocated a significant amount of land for forage and pasture production. Even in the neighbouring country like India where over 5 percent of the cultivated land is under fodder crop and 36 percent under permanent pastures. Similarly, in China over 10 percent of the croplands are under forage crops and over 26 percent of the total land is categorised as rangelands. In New Zealand where the livestock (sheep, cattle and deer) are the major economical activity almost all-agricultural land is devoted for pasture production. <br /> <br /><br /><a <br /><br />href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjONdy_DUiCNdIvgPlE9p0_ogqJCkV79OhXmJvwXeBF59JXZsETIEduUk0SjCiogaOzSQBkKKpz8hAt5tmj4B1Wk8mN-kqfQU5NBdvYckRrFkrHt0YKlgfc6GTE51uLXdsDTza_JmMz/s1600-h/9.0+CFSH-30+at+Janakpur.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjONdy_DUiCNdIvgPlE9p0_ogqJCkV79OhXmJvwXeBF59JXZsETIEduUk0SjCiogaOzSQBkKKpz8hAt5tmj4B1Wk8mN-kqfQU5NBdvYckRrFkrHt0YKlgfc6GTE51uLXdsDTza_JmMz/s200/9.0+CFSH-30+at+Janakpur.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5085378243413147858" /></a><br /><br />1<strong>.2 Major Institutions (GO/NGO/INGO & Private sector) Involved on Feeds and Forage Development</strong><br />The sole institute involved in fodder and pasture development is HMG/N, Department of Livestock Services. Despite DLS, other organizations are: -<br />• Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC),<br />• Department of Forestry (DOF), <br />• Department of Soil Water Conservation (DSWC),<br />• Tribhuvan University <br />• Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), b) Institute of Forestry<br />• National Forage and Grassland Research Centre (NFGRC),<br />• Palpa Pasture Development Association,<br />• And, others.<br />Various international organizations have supported HMG/N to overall development of livestock, forage and rangelands. Majors are: <br />• FAO, Study on Livestock and Dairy Development (1952);<br />• FAO, New Zealand Government to establish cheese factory (1953),<br />• Swiss Government to establish Jiri Multipurpose Centre (1957),<br />• New Zealand Government to establish Dairy plant (1959),<br />• FAO, Trishuli Watershed Project (1968),<br />• British Government: Pakhribas/Lumle Agricultural Centre (1968)<br />• FAO, Sheep, goats and wool Development Project (1974),<br />• FAO, High Altitude Pasture Development Project (1980),<br />• USAID, Resource Conservation and Utilization Project, 1980,<br />• Swiss Government Tinau Watershed Project (1981-90),<br />• USAID, Agriculture Research and Production Project (1981-90),<br />• World Bank, Rasuwa Nuwakot Rural Development Project (1986-90),<br />• USAID, Rapti Development Project (1987-95),<br />• HELVETAS/GTZ, Palpa District Development Project (1989-94),<br />• Multinational donors, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development,<br />• IFAD/UNDP/the Netherlands Government supported Hills Leasehold Forestry and Forage Development Project (1993- continued)<br />• EC, Gulmi Arghakhanchi Rural Development Project Phase I & II (1996- 2003)<br /><br />Presently 14 Farms/Research Centres has been involved directly or indirectly on forage and pasture development activities. Out of the total 9 farms are under DLS and 5 under NARC. 5 (3 Farms and 2 Centre) are located in Northern Mountain belt similarly 5 (4 Farms and 1 Centre) is located at Southern Terai and 4 (2 Farm and 2 Centre) located at Middle Hills (Table 4.1). Out of the total Farms three DLS Farms and two Research Centre is exclusively involved in forage and pasture development activities. The Farms of Janakpur, Ranjitpur and Gaughat is involved on tropical/sub-tropical forage development. Similarly the Research Centre of Khumaltar and Rasuwa is involved in high altitude pasture development activities. These Farms are producing a small amount of forage and pasture seed for its own use and the surplus seeds are sold to the farmers.<br /><br />Forage and Pasture Production Programs under DLS/NARC:<br />• Northern /Himalay region: Livestock Dev. Jiri (DLS), Sheep Dev Farm, Nuwakot (DLS) Yak Dev Farm Solukhumbu (DLS), Pasture Research Centre, Rasuwa (NARC), Sheep/goat Research Centre, Jumla (NARC)<br />• Southern /Terai region: Pasture Dev Farm, Janakpur (DLS), Pasture Dev Farm, Ranjitpur, Sarlahi (DLS), Livestock Dev Farm, Banke (DLS), Goat Dev Farm Dhanghadhi (DLS), Tarahara Research Centre, Sunsari (NARC)<br />• Middle Hills region: Livestock Dev Farm, Pokhara (DLS), Sheep/Goat Dev Farm, Chitlang, (DLS), Fodder & pasture Research Centre, Khumaltar.(NARC), Goat Research Centre, Bandipur (NARC)<br /><br /><strong>1.3 Status of Forage and Pasture Seed Production:</strong>Seeds and planting materials are basic requisites to carry out forage development activities. Shortage of forage seed limiting its developmental activities. Since the efforts of government and non-government organizations significant achievements have obtained in forage seed production sector. <br /><br />During FY 1994/ 95 total forage seed production was 54 mt in which 54 percent is produced within the Government Farms and only rest by the private sectors. There are 21 species of forage crops used for seed production. At farmers level only 6 species are grown for seed production viz. oat, vetch, berseem, teosente, stylo, molasses and beans. Oat and berseem are the most popular species at farmers level. Contribution of oat and berseem in total production is about 68 and 13 percent respectively. Despite the above species a wide range of perennial forage species, which are propagated by vegetative means such as Napier, Para, broom and setaria, are grown in Farms as well as farmers field.<br /> <br />Present level of seed production is meeting only 62 percent of the domestic demand. Many experts such as Basnyat (1988); Pariyar (1990); Morrison, (1991); Stevens (1991) and Miller (1993) suggested that forage seed production program is the single agricultural input which could help to solve the acute shortage of livestock feed as well to control environmental degradation through improved forage cultivation practices. So, an organised effort is needed on forage seed production for the expansion of forage improvement.<br /> <br /><strong>1.3.1 Scope and opportunities for Forage Seed Production</strong>There is great potentiality to grow different species of forage seeds in Nepal. The most potential areas from the seed production point of view are:<br /><br />• Berseem has been found suitable in southern belt of Dhanusha, Mahotari, Sarlahi, Banke and Dang where there are irrigation facilities. It is estimated that about 0.2 m ha of paddy land could be used for berseem seed production in these districts, which could produce minimum 40,000 mt of seed (Pande, 1995).<br />• Seed production of stylo has been found successful in lower belt of Palpa, Dang and Makawanpur up to altitude of 1500 m.<br />• Seed production of oat, vetch and teosente are found success in Southern Terai and Middle hills of Nepal.<br />• Among the temperate pasture species such as white clover, ryegrass, cocksfoot, paspalum are found successful at Rasuwa, Mustang, Jiri and Dolpa.<br />• Potential native species for seed production are: Elymus nutans, Pennisetum flaccidum and Medicago falcata in the temperate zone of mountains especially in Mustang, Manang, Dolpa, Jiri, Dolkha and Jumla.<br /><br /><strong>1.3.2 Major species for Intensive use</strong>Out of introduced species in Nepal all potential species suitable for different agro-ecological zone may not be applicable to develop and recommend for the production of forage at farmers level. The most potential and farmer's preferred species should be developed as a pet species at the present level of available resources. The potential pet species are as follows:<br /><br /><br />The Pet Species for Forage Development at farmers level:<br />• Berseem: As winter-feed on the cultivated lands throughout whole Southern and Middle belts.<br />• Vetch: As winter feed on the cultivated lands throughout Southern and Middle hills<br />• Stylo: For silvi-pasture development on barren/steep lands throughout Southern and Middle hills up to 1500 m.<br />• White clover: For range seeding on mid hills and Mountains from 1500- 4000 m<br />• Oat: As winter-feed on cultivated lands throughout Nepal<br />• Teosinte: As summer feed on cultivated lands throughout Southern and Middle hills.<br />• Napier: As summer feed on bunds, terrace and roadside throughout southern and middle hills up to 1500 m.<br />• Molasses: For silvi-pasture use to grow on barren/steep lands through out hills from 500-1500 m.<br />• Perennial Ryegrass: For range seeding on Mid hills and Mountains from 1500 - 4000 m<br />• Cocksfoot: For range seeding on mid hills and mountains from 1500- 4000 m<br /><br /><strong>1.5 Status of concentrated feed production </strong>To promote concentrated feed production for livestock and poultry birds HMG/N has established the Animal Feed Production and Distribution Board (AFPDBP) in FY 1970/71. The Board was previously known as Cattle Feed and Carcass Utilization Plant. The Plant was established at Hetaunda in order to produce balance ration for animals and poultry birds. In FY 1984/85 the CFCU was reformed and named Animal Feed Production and Distribution Board. The plant is producing 60,000 Mt of feed annually for livestock, pigs, poultry, fish and elephant. Since the poultry farming enterprises is flourishing at private level various feed industries has been established in the country.<br /> <br /><strong>1.6 Major Limitations and recommendations</strong><br />• Lack of proper priority: Forage development program is in low priority sector compared with the other activities of livestock development. For example, animal health cares vs livestock feeds.<br />Priority should be given to improve the feeds supply on year round basis to increase the livestock production and productivity compared to other activities related to livestock development. It will not only solve the feed deficit situation of the existing population but will also control the depletion of the environment due to overgrazing and misuse. <br /><br />• Competition between food and forage crops: Most of the farms are small in size and are growing food crops for the domestic consumption. Interruption or any change on the traditional crop farming system affects on the food supply pattern. As most of the winter/summer forage crops compete with food crops farmers does not like to grow fodder especially in the cropland. For example, berseem/oat VS. Wheat crop.<br /><br />Use of uncultivated fallow croplands: Extensive programs should be launched to grow forage crops on buds, terrace risers, fallow crop field and nook and corners of the crop field. Priority should be given to improve the degraded grazing lands, community lands and the roadside, banks of canal for intensive fodder cultivation<br />• Subsistence farming system: Most of the farms are subsistence type. Farmers are growing varieties of crops relatively in a small amount on a small piece of land to support the requirements of the families. Specialisation or commercial production of crops especially the forage seeds are lacking. Farmers involved in forage production grow some seed for their future use; only surplus seeds are sold to the markets. It was observed that majority of the farmers grow forage crops only in about 500 - 2000 Sq. m area which is quite insufficient to meet the requirements of livestock reared under stall fed conditions.<br /><br />• High cost involvement: The cultivation practices of most of the fodder crop and the pasturelands improvements practices require high cost. Which are beyond the investment capacity of individual farmers. For example, higher price of seed/planting materials (Annex 4.2).<br /><br />• Input supply, seeds/seedlings: Generally there is a shortage of inputs especially seeds seedlings of the fodder and pasture crops. Furthermore, due to the lack of proper mechanism for distribution the seeds are not readily available to the farmers. <br /><br />Input supply: Input supply should be improved by establishing resource centres for seeds seedlings and planting materials on the potential sites. This will not only improve the supply of input needed but also provide income generation opportunities to the rural people. Provision should be made for the easy and timely availability of necessary inputs and ingredient for livestock feed industries.<br />• Appropriate technology and its dissemination: There is a lack of proper technology for fodder cultivation and pasturelands improvements. In the past wide range of exotic species has been used without prior trials especially onto the existing high altitude pastures which fail to establishment in many cases No proper technology has been developed for steppe region. <br /><br />Strengthening of the government Farms: The involved Farms should be strengthened and a seed production Farm at high altitude regions should be established for temperate seed production. Immediate attention is needed to replace the old cultivars of the Government Farms and the seeds of the registered seed growers with a high quality breeds seeds to maintain the varietal purity as well as to maintain the productivity of the seeds.<br /><br />• Training and Skill: Forage and pasture improvement is a specialised job. It needs trained manpower for its production/management. There is a shortage of trained manpower either at government or at private level. The government staff needs to be trained for the production of quality founder seed, breeding, processing and other aspects whereas the farmers need to be trained to the production of growers seed and its quality control, harvesting, processing and proper storage.<br /><br />Training and skill: Massive training and awareness program should be launched to promote fodder cultivation and pasturelands improvements. Publications of booklets, leaflets, charts, posters, and video film could be an effective media to create awareness among the rural farmers.<br /><br />• Market and marketing: Due to poor markets and marketing facilities of livestock products farmers are reluctant to invest on improved livestock production system. Similarly, there is lack of proper markets for the forage seeds and planting materials. Furthermore, due to inadequate storage facilities most of the seeds are westage if not sold in time.<br /><br />Market/marketing: Markets and marketing facilities for livestock products, planting materials and livestock feeds should be developed to encourage the improved livestock and forage seed production.<br /><br />Export possibilities: Possibilities for the exportation of forage seed especially to the SAARC countries should be explored and a specialized quality seed growers Farmers Association should be formed for this purpose.<br /><br />• Quality of seeds and seedlings: Another major problem to forage and pasture development is the poor quality of seeds and planting materials. Most of the seed produced both at Government Farm and farmers level are of poor quality. Quality Control: Standard norms, guidelines should be developed to control the quality of seeds, seedlings and planting materials.<br />• Poor Coordination: There is a lack of coordination among the government organisations especially in the case of research and extension (between DLS and NARC/IAAS), for the sustainable use of natural resources such as pasturelands, forests (between DLS and DOF/DSWC). Co-ordination: A close co-ordination and decision should be taken at policy level especially among the government organisations especially in the case of research and extension (between DLS and NARC/IAAS) for the sustainable use of natural resources such as pasturelands, forests (between DLS and DOF/DSWC).<br />• Open trade: A large quantities of forage seeds and planting materials are imported from India and abroad by the private sector. It is estimated that about 800-1,000 kg of berseem and 3,000 - 5,000 kg of oat seeds are brought from India by the local vendors and sold in the local weekly markets. The prices of such seed are much cheaper than locally grown seeds. These imported seeds are found low in quality and of unspecified cultivars.<br />• Income and employment generation source: Forage production and marketing activities should be promoted as a potential source of income and employment generation especially for the rural farmers. <br />• Involvement of private sector: Private sectors should be encouraged and environment should be created for their contribution especially in the field of forage seed production, feed formulation, markets and marketing development related to fodder, pasture and livestock feeds.<br />• People’s participation: The forage development program should be carried out through strong peoples participation. So, they should realize that the program is their need and they will get benefited after its success.National Forage and Grassland Research Centrehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12680280011049738183noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2535044485904325297.post-49378327400104921792007-07-09T18:23:00.000-07:002007-07-28T08:10:38.517-07:00Use of Fodder Trees and Forest Foliage in Nepal<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxvd-vB142opFgXEVD_C0bhFqr-wkGj3LHzejNdJHsCYEuEgtd8mFw1Wv2ADEnED2coI_d5migZsn_zSX-xnyheITvF4s3uSDDkeHCSeR60xB5VMy1PaSVKd23ja6LL_M_bpujcbHz/s1600-h/Tree+foliage+cut+%26+carry.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxvd-vB142opFgXEVD_C0bhFqr-wkGj3LHzejNdJHsCYEuEgtd8mFw1Wv2ADEnED2coI_d5migZsn_zSX-xnyheITvF4s3uSDDkeHCSeR60xB5VMy1PaSVKd23ja6LL_M_bpujcbHz/s200/Tree+foliage+cut+%26+carry.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5092264998219566450" /></a><br />strong>Use of Fodder Trees and Forest Foliage in Nepal</strong><br /><br /><br />By: Rameshwar Singh Pande<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwSWpUNVwD6e2UzK5HeD3GRTPgMWQCH5YgaFTei36cnvK2Pi6MLEH7Xr9fXz3-DsfSUbNMo38S8dSvr9DgQac0THdGBgP0l824F7lR8TZyb9_qIp4-XGIFod_oY1B3vliKljviE8Wg/s1600-h/Goats+feeding+on+tree+foliage.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwSWpUNVwD6e2UzK5HeD3GRTPgMWQCH5YgaFTei36cnvK2Pi6MLEH7Xr9fXz3-DsfSUbNMo38S8dSvr9DgQac0THdGBgP0l824F7lR8TZyb9_qIp4-XGIFod_oY1B3vliKljviE8Wg/s200/Goats+feeding+on+tree+foliage.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5086498342295712482" /></a><br /><<br /><br /><br /><strong>1. Importance of Fodder Tree Species in Nepal</strong>Fodder shrubs/trees as animal feed, particularly during winter and dry period have been the important traditional source of livestock feed especially, in the Middle and Northern Belt of Nepal. Plantation of fodder trees and shrubs are an ecological sound practices, which contributes on soil conservation and maintaining agricultural sustainability.<br /><br />Fodder trees and shrubs play an important role in Nepalese economy. More than 136 different species of trees/shrubs have been used as a source of livestock feed in Nepal. Trees/shrubs are the main source of fodder and bedding material for livestock, fuel-wood for energy needs and, timber for house construction. Traditionally, foliage of fodder tree and shrub has been offered to cattle, buffalo, and goats especially in stall-fed conditions. For example, in high Northern Belt, when, the pasturelands are covered with snow for most of the winter season (5-6 months of a year) and there is a conserved forage deficit, the foliage of trees/shrubs help the requirements of feed for livestock.<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWGtwJTMLhPITNJ7PqTTaMKlsIj6Sm3ZKJSfKWo92RCNcT86w60grnb5757VZOnlIwy8D6ujlLHZa9AJtQY1w1WqXdjjp_Yj_4rXB8_Yynoi2EPTUxQCP0UNAJkQUn585-_abhQTL5/s1600-h/Bhedigoth+Lady+with+fodder+load.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWGtwJTMLhPITNJ7PqTTaMKlsIj6Sm3ZKJSfKWo92RCNcT86w60grnb5757VZOnlIwy8D6ujlLHZa9AJtQY1w1WqXdjjp_Yj_4rXB8_Yynoi2EPTUxQCP0UNAJkQUn585-_abhQTL5/s200/Bhedigoth+Lady+with+fodder+load.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5085376392282243266" /></a><br /> <br /><br />It is estimated that fodder (either planted or naturally grown) trees/shrubs provide approximately 41 percent of DM in annual feed supply (Pandey, 1982). Pandey (1990a) estimates that about 12 percent of foliage of trees/shrubs has been supplemented with other roughage to dairy cattle in Nepal. A household survey carried out in a Chautara, Nepal showed that the use of fodder was 655 kg per caput, and use of litter for bedding material was 459 kg per caput (New Era, 1980). Despite to provide fodder and bedding material to livestock trees and shrubs also provide fuel-wood, poles and timber for house construction. Fuel-wood is the major source of the energy needs. It was estimated that fuel-wood provides more than 87percent of the country's energy need (Manandhar, 1980; Danovan, 1981). Campbell (1983) found that average annual consumption of fuel-wood in middle hill areas of Nepal was 640 kg per caput.<br /><br />Trees/shrubs not only provide fodder and fuel-wood at the same time also serve as an excellent source for soil improvement and conservation (Brewbaker, 1983). Leguminous fodder species able to fix 500 kg N/ha/yr. (Withinglin, 1987). Plantation of trees/shrubs along the counters is widely recommended to reduce the run off of water and protect terrace (Lundgren and Nair, 1983; Gilmour, 1984; Weirsum, 1984; Benge, 1987). By planting trees/shrubs, soil erosion can be reduced to about one ton of soil per hectare as compared with annual loss of about 120 Mt under a typical crop production system (Maharajan, 1987).<br /><br />Most of the leaves of trees/shrubs are of low palatability and low digestibility (Wilson, 1977; Pande, 1990). Many browse species, which have been used in Nepal found to contain high concentration of hydrocyanic acid (HCN) (Pandey, 1982); tannins (Shrestha and Pakhrin, 1989), which is related to decrease in milk yield and can cause gastro-urinal problems in ruminant (Pandey, 1982; Shrestha and Pakhrin, 1989). Animal production is also low when foliage of tree/shrubs were fed as a sole diet to animals (Pande, 1990) but fodder can still be the sole source of feed for animal when herbaceous forage is scare.<br /><br /><strong>2 Feed value of fodder Materials</strong>Fodder serve as a supplementary diet as well as sole diet for ruminant. fodder trees constitutes a valuable source of feed for livestock especially during lean period. Pandey (1990b) reviewed the nutritive value of fodder species and analysis of 19 different fodder tree species which are commonly used in Nepal showed that on an average CP content is generally high i.e. 18.7 percent CP on percent DM (Panday, 1990b). Similarly, Pandey (1982) listed the chemical composition of 49 different species of fodder species which contain 13.6 percent CP (range 5.2 - 29.7 percent DM). Mahto et al (1989) reported that protein content in 6 Ficus species were ranged 8.5 to 13.5 percent which was higher than the protein requirement of lactating ruminant. However, the dry matter digestibility (DMD) was low ranged from 24.4 to 54.1 percent DM.<br /><br />Most of the fodder species contain adequate amount of trace elements such as Mn, Zn, Fe, Ca and K. However, many browse species are low in Na, P and Cu (Jones, 1979; NAS, 1975; Bohra and Ghose, 1980; Pandey, 1982; Ranawana, 1987; Gupta and Balaraman, 1989). <br /><br />Leguminous fodder tree species are relatively higher in nutritive value compared to non-leguminous species. For example, Nitrogen (N) content in tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis) was found 3.2 percent DM and in vitro dry matter digestibility (DMD) was 69.3 (Pande, 1990). Similarly, widely used fodder tree species Leucaena contain 2.9percent and in -vitro DMD was 62.2 (Cheva-isarakull & Polikanond, 1985). However, fodder species are generally higher in fibber content compared to grasses in flush season. <br /><br />Fodder trees/shrub may not be an efficient sole diet for livestock but as a supplement with poor quality roughage such as straw and poor quality grasses, browse may serve as an excellent feed especially in dry season. Van Eys et al (1986) reported that there were increased growth rate in growing goats when napier grass supplemented with tree legumes like gliricidia, leucaena and sesbania compared to napier grass alone in Indonesia. Reynolds and Adediran (1988) reported that lamb growth rate increased when Panicum maximum and cassava peel were supplemented with Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium leaves were fed as a basal diet (in 1:w/w) compared to control diet of Panicum maximum and cassava peel alone.<br /><br />Published data on the grazing behaviour and preference for browsing behaviour show that goats utilise browse more than any other ruminant. Devendra (1987) categorised goat as browsers and sheep and cattle as grazers. Van Dyne et al (1980) reviewed the wide range of literature and concluded that the overall contribution of browse in greater in goat diet than in sheep and cattle (Table -2). However, Sharma (1985) reported that cattle and buffaloes are the most utilise of fodder trees compared to goat in mid-hills of Nepal but he did not mentioned whether the browse were offered in stall- fed or in free ranging conditions.<br /><br /><strong>3 Estimated Production of Fodder</strong><br />Fodder trees/shrubs are popularly grown in the Middle and Northern Belt. The productivity of the fodder trees/shrubs depends on species, age, height of the plant and the lopping cycle. The productivity of the fodder trees/shrubs vary from 15- 60 kg/tree/annum (Pandey, 1982).<br /><br /><strong>4 Fodder tree Species Developmental Activities</strong>Production and distribution of fodder trees/shrubs saplings are the major activities of various GO/NGOs. For example, district level offices of Department of Livestock Services, Department of Forest, Department of Soil water Conservation are producing a large number of fodder trees/shrubs sapling and distributes to the farmers at nominal price. Annual distribution of the saplings varies from 1-3 million/year. However, information on the survival percentage and contribution on fodder supply is extremely lacking.<br /><br /><strong>5 Major Fodder tree Species</strong>There are over 136 species of trees/shrubs, which are used as livestock fodder in Nepal (Pande, 1991; Pandey, 1982). Most of these species are non- - legume. A review of the available fodder tree species revealed that only few are legumes. <br /><br />5<strong>.1 Native fodder tree Species<br />5.1.1 Badahar (Artocarpus lakoocha</strong>): It is a most popular fodder tree in Northern and Middle Belt of Nepal. It grows between 200 - 1500 m altitudes. The tree grows up to 30 m high. It is an evergreen in nature. It can be propagated by seeds, nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August. Lopping is done from October/December and April/June. <br /> <br /><strong>5.1.2 Bauhinia species</strong>: Tanki (Bauhinia purpurea Linn) and Koiralo (Bauhinia variegata Linn): Bauhinia species are most popular native fodder trees. Both are deciduous in nature. Plant grow up to 10 m tall, however, the Koiralo plant grow up to 15m. Plant occurs at Southern to Middle belt regions from 300 m to 1800 masl. It belongs to the leguminous family. However, it does not fix atmospheric Nitrogen. The pod and flowers of Koiralo is consumed as vegetable. Naturally grown plant is protected along the bunds and the terrace risers in the crop field. It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May, the seedpod ripens two months later (i.e. March to June) (Napier and Robbins, 1989). Lopping is done from October/November to March/April. The fodder production varies from 10- 72 kg DM/tree (Warmald et al, 1983; Amatya, 1990). The CP content is up to 30 percent.<br /><br /><strong>5.1.3 Caragana</strong>: Caragana brevispina and Caragana geradiana: Caragana are the shrub of steppe region. The shrub is found in the rain shadow area of Nepal like Mustang, Manang district. a) C. geradiana is found at the elevation of 3000-4000m whereas C. brevispina occurs at the higher elevation than C. geradiana at 4200-5000masl. C. geradiana grow up to 80 m tall. b) C. brevispina is bigger than C. geradiana, grows up to 120 m tall. It is highly nutritious, provides green fodder during the dry season. It is browsed by sheep and goats.<br /><br />5<strong>.1.4 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan </strong>(L. Millsp): It is a multipurpose leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 3 m high. It is mainly used as pulse crop in Nepal. It is drought tolerant. It is suitable to grow in Southern and Middle Belt up to 1500 m. Some Indian cultivars of fodder type were introduced at Pokhara Livestock Farm in around 1988 but the plant failed to establish (Shrestha et al, 1990). Later in 1990 it was reintroduced by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation and tested at Manthali, Ramechhap and Kabhre. It produced 3 -4 ton DM/ha in 2-4 cuttings a year (April - May) (Pandit, 1992). <br /><br />5<strong>.1.5 Dudhilo (Ficus nemoralis</strong>): It is a most popular fodder tree of western region. It naturally grows between 1200 - 2400 m altitudes. The tree grow up to 30 m high It is a deciduous in nature, old leaves shade during December - January and new flush starts from February - March. The plant remains bare only for short period. It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August. It flowers during February to March, the seed ripens two months later i.e. March - June Lopping is done from October/December and April/June. The fodder production varies from 20 to 55 kg/tree. The CP content is up to 12.3 percent. The foliage contains glucocides 'Saponin' which have side affects to animals and may cause Haematuria.<br /><br /><strong>5.1.6 Bhimal (Grewia optiva</strong>): It is a most important fodder tree of western region. It naturally grows between 500 - 1800 m altitudes. It is a medium sized plant. The tree grows up to 15 m high. Old leaves shed on March - April and new flush starts from April - May. The plant remains bare leaf during March- April. It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August. It flowers during April - June, the fruit ripens from October - December. Fruits are edible. Lopping is done from October - February and May - June. The fodder production varies from 35 - 130 kg/tree. The best fodder no side affects has been reported. The CP content is up to 18.8 percent. <br /> <br />5<strong>.1.7 Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora</strong>): It is a most important fodder tree of temperate region. It naturally grows between 1200 - 2500 m altitudes. The tree grows up to 30 m high. It is an evergreen in nature; new flush starts from March - April. It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August. It flowers during April - May, the fruit (acorn) ripens on December - January. Lopping is done from November - March and May - June. The fodder production varies from 55 - 160 kg/tree. The CP content is up to 11.6 percent. The new flush contains high concentration of tannins, which could have side affects to animals if consumed in large quantity.<br /><br /><strong>5.2 Exotic Browse Species<br />5.2.1 Kaliandra (Calliandra calothyrus Meissn</strong>): It is a multipurpose leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 5 m high. It is drought tolerant but does not thrive under water logged conditions. It is suitable to all over Nepal ranging from Terai to mountains up to 1500 masl. The plant is propagated by seeds. If the seed is treated with hot water prior to seeding rapid germination could be obtained. If the nursery raised seedlings to be planted the seedlings should be of 4--6 months old at the time of planting. The planting distance should be 2 X 2 or 1 X 1 m. The fodder is highly nutritious; CP content is about 22 percent. It produces 7- 10 ton DM /ha of fodder (RAPA, 1987). The plant is also used for ornamental purpose, erosion control and green manuring. It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 m) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute, the performance was good. Within the six months of age the plant attended 0.3-m high and the survival rate was 93 percent an up to the age of six month (Shah, et al, 1990). It was also promoted by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990 and tested at Manthali, Ramechhap (altitude 500 masl) and Kabhre district. The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA. It can be sown directly onto the steep slops and poor sites. It gives 4 cuttings a year (April - May) and produces 46 ton/ha of fresh fodder (Pandit, 1992). <br /><br />5<strong>.2.2 Tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis</strong>) (Christ) Hutch.: Tagasaste is leguminous shrub of temperate climate. It is a fast growing, drought resistant shrub of 4-5 m tall. This shrub is quite popular in New Zealand and Australia. The DM Production is up to 25 Mt DM/ha on a 1000 plant/ha basis. The plant is relatively free from disease and pest. Tagasaste is highly nutritious, CP content is about 22 % and digestibility is 71 percent. There is no any side effect reported to be found in tagasaste. Tagasaste was introduced at Khumaltar in around 1984. The plant germinated and grew up to knee height during the dry season but wilted and died during the rainy season due to the water logged conditions (LP Sharma: Personal communication). It was reintroduced in 1991 by the author and tested at Khumaltar. The plant well established and started to flower also but later the plant was uprooted and removed by the authority (Plate - 9) <br /><br /><strong>5.2.3 Flemingia (Flemingia congesta Roxb</strong>.): It is a leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 2 m high. It has trifoliate leaves. It is popularly known as "Bhatmase" in Nepal. It is drought tolerant as well as survives short water logging conditions. It is suitable to all over Nepal ranging from Southern Terai to mountains up to 1200 m. It is also used as bush plant to support the creeping legumes such as Centro, kudzu Seratro and others. It was introduced by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990 and tested at Manthali, Ramechhap and Kabhre district. The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA. It is popularly grown at terrace edge of the lowland. It gives 6 cuttings a year (April - May) and produces 44 ton/ha of fresh fodder (Pandit, 1992). <br /><br />5<strong>.2.4 Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium </strong>(Jacq.) Steud.) (Syn. Gliricidia maculata (H.B.K.) Stued.: It is a fast growing deciduous leguminous shrub. It grows up to 10 m. It prefers tropical/subtropical climate and high rainfall. It could be grown in Southern Terai and hills up to 1500 m but performs well under high rainfall areas. It can be propagated by seeds, seedlings and stem cuttings. For better germination seed should be treated with hot water for 2-3 minutes prior to seeding. It is highly nutritious. The CP content is about 20 percent. The root, barks and seeds are poisonous to cattle (Smith and Van Houtert, 1987). It was considered as a substitute for Leucaena leucocephala. The plant was introduced by Forest Research Division in 1984 and tested at Bara district. In the 18 months of age the plant attended 3.3-m height. The plant was observed to flourish well at Palpa, Tamagadhi and Rampur. It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 m) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute and the performance was found good. It was observed that the plant coppices well. It was also introduced by DLS/Second Livestock Development Project. 10 kg of seed was imported from Australia and tested at Janakpur, Ranjitpur and Pokhara Farm. The performance has not been recorded yet.<br /><br /><strong>5.2.5 Guazuma (Guazuma ulmifolia L./OR Guazuma tomentosa</strong>): It is a leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 5 m high. It is drought tolerant as well as survives short water logging conditions. It is suitable to all over Nepal ranging from Terai to mountains up to 1500 m. Forestry Research Institute introduced it in 1985. It performed well. The plant was established in 1986 July during November 1990 the fodder yield was 10.1 kg/tree and in My, 1991 fodder yield was 13.3 (Amatya, 1992). It was also tested by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990. The plant was established at Manthali, Ramechhap and Kabhre district. The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA. It is popularly grown at terrace edge of the cropland. It gives 3-4 cuttings a year (April - May) and produces reasonable quantity of fodder (Nepal Krish Ban Pratisthan: Nepal Agroforestry Foundation, 1993). <br /><br /><strong>5.2.6 Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala </strong>(Lam.) de Wit.: It is the most popular and widely grown multipurpose fodder species at tropical region of the world. It can be grown from low-lying Terai to 1500-m altitude. The species is widely used for fuelwood, timber and green manuring purposes. It is also used as windbreaks, firebreaks, shade and ornamentation. It can be grown in the tropical and subtropical climate. Depending on variety leucaena grow up to 20 m high. Fodder is highly nutritious, digestible and palatable to cattle, buffalo and goats. Due to the memosine content it is not recommended to the non-ruminants and sheep as it causes some side effects. Plant starts flowering at the age of 4 years. It flowers through out the year except December - January. It bears long and flat seed pot. The seedpods mature after 3-4 months of flowering. It is propagated by direct seeding and from nursery seedling or stump cuttings. For better germination the seed should be emerged in hot water (80 .C) for about 2-3 minutes prior to seeding. Usually planted in 1 by 1-m spacing. a) Leucaena leucocephala was introduced in around 1980 under the DLS/Livestock Development Project and tested at Janakpur, Ranjitpur, Pokhara and other places. The performance of leucocephala was found very promising and also liked by the farmers. It was used as a per species by the Government agency for multipurpose use such as fodder, fuelwood and for soil improvement. In 1983, seven different strains of Leucaena such as CIAT 17388, CIAT 17474, CIAT 17477, K 8, K 28 and K 67 were introduced and tested at Pokhara. The seed was brought from CIAT. During the late 1990s the popularity of the leucocephala started to decline due to the psylllid problem. Alternative to leucocephala many psyllid resistant varieties were introduced and tested in Nepal. In 1990, Second Livestock Development Project/DLS imported 100 kg of leucaena CV Cunningham from Australia and distributed at Janakpur, Ranjitpur and Pokhara Farm. The performance has yet to be reported. Varieties like K- 8 and K- 636 were tested at Bauhinepati under World Neighbor. K- 636 was found good for Terai and K- 8 performed well at lower hills. b. Leucaena diversifolia (Schlecht) Benth. It is a cold- tolerant species of leucaena (Brewbaker, 1983). It is also known to be psyllid resistant variety of Leucaena. In 1983, four different strains of L. diversifolia viz. CIAT–17388,CIAT 17461,CIAT 17485, CIAT 17505, CIAT 17489, CIAT 17503 were introduced and tested at Pokhara. The seed was brought from CIAT. Similarly, three varieties were tested at Rampur (altitude 320 masl) viz. K 29; K 156 and Nizgarh in 1983. The performance was quite good. The cultivars are most promising for Terai and hills. It can grow at higher altitude up to 1300 m.<br /><br /><strong>5.2.7 Black Locust (Robinia pseudocacia </strong>L.): It is a tall tree like deciduous plant grows up to 30 m high. It is a native of North America. The plant is adapted to Temperate Zone. It can propagate by seeds, seedlings, and root suckers. The foliage is used as fodder to the livestock, as well as silage production in Bhutan (Nordmeyer, 1988) It can grow in between 1500 - 3500 m altitude in Nepal. The old leaves shed on November/December and new leaves come out in March/April. The plant bears flower on April/May. The plant bears pod and pod matures during September/October. It can be propagated from seeds, root suckers. It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 masl) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute, the plant could not be established however, the performance was good (Shah, et al, 1990). Forest Research Division in around 1984 also tested it. The plant was observed to flourish well at Mustang region. It provides fodder during October/November and May - June. The fodder production varies from 50-240 kg/tree. It is highly nutritious CP content is 21.6 percent. TDN percent is 43 and Tannins 1.9 percent to be found in the foliage.<br /><br /><strong>5.2.8 Sesbania (Sesnbania grandiflora </strong>(L.) Poir: It is a fast growing tree like fodder shrub grows up to 10 m high. It is drought tolerant as well as survives short water logging conditions. It is suitable to sub tropical climate and could be grown in Terai and Hills up to 1000 masl. It is frost sensitive could be grown only in frost-free regions. It is also used as ornamental purpose. The flowers and pods are used as vegetable. It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 m) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute the performance was found good. Within the six months of age the plant attended 0.92-m high and the survival rate was 80 percent an up to the age of six month (Shah, et al, 1990). It was also tested by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990 at Manthali, Ramechhap (altitude 500 masl). The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA. It is popularly grown at terrace edge of the lowland. It gives 3-4 cuttings a year (April - May). <br /><br /><strong>6 Limitations of Browse </strong>• Presence of secondary compounds: Most of the browse species contain a wide range of inhibitors such as alkaloids, amino acids, cyanogenic, glycosides, organic acids hydrocyanic acids etc. (Bulter and Balay 1773; Panday, 1982; Barry and Blaney, 1987). These secondary compound affects on forage quality and animal performance by various mean. Pandey (1982) listed some species of browse trees and shrubs, which have ill effect on ruminant such as Bauhinia varietaga, Ficus roxburghii, Prunus ceresoides. Shrestha and Pakhrin (1989) concluded that the presence of high concentration of tannin in Ficus auriculata might be the reason for the decreased milk yield in buffaloes during the experimental period conducted at PAC, Dhankuta. Common secondary compounds found in some browse species:Leucaena leucocephala contains memosine; Gliricidia sepium- Caumarin; Salix spp- Tannins; Grewia tiliaefolia- organic acid Seneria jacobaea - Pyrrolizidine<br /><br />• Production potential: Most of the browse tree/shrubs take 5 to 20 years to yield significant amount of fodder in Nepal (Pandey 1982; Hopkins, 1985). Individual DM yields is also low. Pandey (1982) estimated that on an average a mature browse tree/shrub produces 15-60 kg DM per year. Many indigenous browse species are difficult to establish and propagate, they requires certain altitude and ecological conditions. Altitude and lower radiation is the main reason for low DM yields. Most of the browse trees/shrubs produce relatively high amount of DM at lower altitude than do in high altitude. Pandey and Nosberger (1985) observed that at high radiation the growth pattern of Artocarpus lakoocha was higher compared to low radiation (<15 MJ/sq./d). Similarly, the rate of leaf appearance was lower at higher altitude (1200m and 1500 m) compared to low altitude (800m). At altitude 800m the maximum rate of leaf appearance in Artocarpus lakoocha was 118 leaves/month whereas at 1200 m and 1500 m the maximum rate of leaf appearance was 45 and 10 leaves/month respectively in hill area near Kathmandu (Pandey and Nosberger, 1985).<br /><br />• Choice of browse species: There are over 550 species of tree/shrubs used as feed source in worldwide origin (Robinson, 1984). Pandey (1982) and Bajracharya et al (1985) mentioned that over 136 species of tree/shrubs have been used as a source of feed in Nepal. Feed value of indigenous browse species is assumed as low compared to introduced leguminous shrub species such as leucaena. Fast growing multipurpose shrubby species are much beneficial than do the tree species. Lower growing shrubby species offer much greater potential compared to tree species from the management point of view as well. Shrubby species can be grazed directly without additional labour cost of lopping or harvesting whereas fodder from tree species must be obtained by lopping of branches.National Forage and Grassland Research Centrehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12680280011049738183noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2535044485904325297.post-70635849430740199022007-07-09T18:03:00.000-07:002007-07-28T18:55:07.370-07:00Yak and Chauri Farming in Nepal<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGjkvNp5mB3jDTXsBjXEiEZUL78MCmhANdKrq4uRtf9cmxwGrdhnH6Wna4JBw86_TxXbh7sRcpiarv_sxbTiPHASm2OGnw1YtVGFuH8JITzH-QKxSmiFKv2XV_OES1VaxBp2g6N-BD/s1600-h/LeSangbu+Bagam.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGjkvNp5mB3jDTXsBjXEiEZUL78MCmhANdKrq4uRtf9cmxwGrdhnH6Wna4JBw86_TxXbh7sRcpiarv_sxbTiPHASm2OGnw1YtVGFuH8JITzH-QKxSmiFKv2XV_OES1VaxBp2g6N-BD/s200/LeSangbu+Bagam.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5086703603077755634" /></a><br /><br /><strong>Yak and Chauri farming in Nepal</strong><br />By: Rameshwar Singh Pande<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />"Yak expedition", "Yak tours", "A yak for Christmus", are some familiar words for most of us. There are many legends related to Yak. Still Yak is a mysterious beast for most of us. Yak is a Himalayan cattle; native to the Himalayan region of Nepal, Bhutan, China and India. It is the only domestic animal, which survive and thrive in the high Himalayan region. They are the prime source of milk, meat, wool and track power in the Himalayan regions. Yaks are the excellent pack animal for the expeditions to Mount Everest. The Yak has been always underrated except to the semi- nomadic peoples of the high Himalayan region. Wild yak (the progeny of domesticated Yak) is rapidly extinction. It is endangered species of the World. There is little information on Yak farming. Present World population of Yak is estimated to be 14 million, out of this approx. 0.2 million Yak and its crosses are found in Nepal.<br /><br /> Yak is a male animal and female is called Nak in Nepali; are pure breed Himalayan cattle. The scientific name is Bos grunniens. Yak and Nak reared at higher altitude regions and seldom comes below 3,000 m. Yak is raised in 22 Himalayan districts of Nepal along the Tibetan boarders. It has long hairs and pointed horns. The adult body weight of a male is about 245 kg and of female Nak is about 215 kg. Yak and Nak provides milk and meat for human consumption. Castrated yak used as pack animal and could carry up to 120 kg of weight. Yak skins are used for making bags, sacks and other materials. Fibbers are used for making ropes and blanket (‘radi’). Yak steak (dried yak meat) is quite popular among the tourists. FAO/RAPA (1994) estimate that the total production of yak steak is 5 Mt/yr.<br /><br />Yaks are very hardy animal and nomadic in nature. The mouth parts are adapted to graze very short grasses, quickly and efficiently. Their legs and hooves are very strong and suitable to walk in steep terrain and precipitous places. They can thrive on poor quality roughages. In the high altitude regions the growing season of crops and grasses are very short. The average temperature is approximately zero degree Celsius. Most of the year grazinglands are covered with snow. During this period either they are fed with poor quality hay or they have to rely on shrubby foliage. Their grazing behaviour is quite adapted to the harsh alpine climate. They graze at any time during the 24 hrs period. In search of a mouthful of grass or hay they even paw the snow layer up to 8 -12 cm thick with their head and face.<br /> <br /> Yak & cattle and vice versa are crossed to produce hybrids. The crosses of yak (Bos grunniens) and local hill cow (Bos indicus) and vice versa are called Chauri. The Chauri are more productive than female yak and are more adaptive to lower altitudes and are reared at the intermediate zone between cattle and yak. Chauri farming is a main source of households’ income in the Himalayan regions.<br />The Chauri are reared under migratory systems, grazing in alpine/sub-alpine pastures during summer and feeding fodder tree leaves during winter. Due to continuous lopping, the forest fodder most of the browse species are threatened to its existing (Pradhan, S.L; D. Miller, D.K. Hitchcock. 2000, Joshi, 2002; Pande 2004). The herders are abandoning the Chauri farming occupations and shifting into other businesses, mainly due to lack of adequate pastures, low production of Chauri, hardship, low return compared to investment, and poor animal health care services.<br /><br /> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXR9ZMoguO7uf3YcQY8AmiECQ8Ezbsd8Jef0ZOeCX9iuwltexMSCnX2jjIKF9uI5X2cPz6y-O6yxHm1rJW1lNcXRj9FkS2LiXZYtCt5VCSQ6QBVS0Jgteo3w-izJSn9AtPK3EWJvld/s1600-h/Jhopkyo-Dolpa.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXR9ZMoguO7uf3YcQY8AmiECQ8Ezbsd8Jef0ZOeCX9iuwltexMSCnX2jjIKF9uI5X2cPz6y-O6yxHm1rJW1lNcXRj9FkS2LiXZYtCt5VCSQ6QBVS0Jgteo3w-izJSn9AtPK3EWJvld/s200/Jhopkyo-Dolpa.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5085372221868998834" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /> The female Chauri are more productive than Nak. The hybrids are more adaptive to lower temperature and are reared at the intermediate zone between cattle and Yaks at the altitude between 2000-5000 metre (Joshi, 1982; Robinson 1992; Miller 1993). The population of the pure Yak/Nak is rapidly declining. It is estimated that there are 56 thousands of Yak and Chauris in Nepal (Miller, 1993). Out of the total Yak/Chauris population the pure Yak/Nak population is only 10,000.<br /> The performances of the Yak/Nak are:<br />• The age of first calving is 48 months,<br />• The milk yield is 470 Lt/lactation<br />• The calving interval is 687 days,<br />• The lactation length is about 174 days.<br /> <br /> The performances of the Chauri' are:<br />• The age of first calving is 36 months,<br />• The milk yield is 1960 Lt/lactation<br />• The calving interval is 425 days,<br />• The lactation length is 254-400 days.<br /> <br /> Generally breeding takes during the months of August to November and calving takes place in the months of April to July.<br /> <br /> Milk production capability of a Chauri is more than Nak. The milk produced from Nak and Chauri are used for making Yak cheese, which is quite popular among the tourist. There are altogether 20 Yak cheese (11 under Dairy Development Corporation and 9 under private sector) (Pande 1996). Total Yak cheese production is about 120 Mt in FY 2004/05. Government of Nepal has established a Yak Farm at Solukhumbu in 1973/74 for the development of Yak/Nak and Chauri. There was another Yak Farm at Dolpa, which was closed down in 1994 (Pande, 1996).<br />Pande (2004) studied the yak/chauri production system in upper slopes of Sindhupalchok and describedthe folowing results:<br /> <br />Trend of Chauri population and herd size: The Chauri population and the herd size are decreasing each year. About five years ago, the population was approximately double (Table 1). Compared to the Chauri population, the number of herders maintains approximately the same during the last five years. However, in Tasitang village the number of the herders has been decreased. About five years ago on average each herder reared 20-25 Chauris but these days a herder is rearing only 10-15 Chauris. For example, in Kyangsing village, there were about 40-45 herders and the population of Chauri was about 1200 five years ago. They are reduced to 800 heads of Chauris and 33 herders.<br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9VLb1yy5xeK1bMwJTd6HdFd-SuHnt8PXyCugtcdYflWEfN5iGVqFrsjzhLV3CRe37w3z0wUIQNddPtgixjAfheSZSPHpPb9WNXLCd1N3Fc1if10TSN-SDbDM0YV_PsI6PhvfnYvfQ/s1600-h/Yak.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9VLb1yy5xeK1bMwJTd6HdFd-SuHnt8PXyCugtcdYflWEfN5iGVqFrsjzhLV3CRe37w3z0wUIQNddPtgixjAfheSZSPHpPb9WNXLCd1N3Fc1if10TSN-SDbDM0YV_PsI6PhvfnYvfQ/s200/Yak.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5085371092292599970" /></a><br /><br />Each year the production of Chauri calf are also decreasing. The estimated production of Chauri per year is 70-100 only (Tasitang - 10; Temathan (Gumba) - 40-50, Kyangsing - 20-40) in the Upper Slopes Areas of Sindhupalchok.<br />The identified causes for the reduction in the number are: 1) casualty by leopard (e.g. during last year, the casualty of Chauris was over 105 by leopard from Tasitang, Bagam, Chhagam and Kyangsing villages); 2) high incidence of diseases (10-12 deaths each year from Tasitang, Bagam, Chhagam and Kyangsing areas); 3) natural death; 4) live export to Tibet (for meat purpose); and 5) others.<br /><br />Estimated Chauri population and herd numbers in Upper Slopes, Sindhupalchok.<br /><br />Village, number of Herds and Populaton: Kyangsing, Gumba -33 (800), Bagam, Listi -23 (350), Chhagam, Listi -11 (156), 4 Tasitang, Tatopani-6(80), 5 Sapukhani, Listi-4(50), Temathang, Gumba-33 (500), Liping, Tatopani-13(220), Bokchen, Tatopani-8 (150),Total-131 (2306)<br /><br />It was discussed that about five years ago the community people had the only option to rear Chauri as a means of livelihoods but nowadays they became selective to choose from various options such as: 1) trading (Tibet-Nepal); 2) migrating to Kathmandu/Tatopani and other places; 3) going Malaysia and/or Arabian countries for employment; and 4) seasonal migration to India.<br />The new generation does not want to be involved in Chauri farming business because it is very hardy and return is also nominal. It was agreed that even the conditions of pastures would be improved, the Chauri population will remain the same, on the other hand, if the conditions remain the same, the population will reduce drastically.<br />The participants cited an example of Helambu village (neighboring village located in 4-5 days walking distance) where a few years ago the Chauri population was more than 2500 heads but now none is rearing a single Chauri. The same phenomenon could happen in these areas also, if the problem remains the same. The present herders are also keen to sale their herds and want to shift into other businesses. Most of the Chauri herders are keen to replace the Chauris with improved cattle (Jersey and/or Brown Swiss) if cows would be available to them and management skill would be provided.<br /><br />Chauri breeding systems<br />Chauris are the products of yak and hill cattle (Aule gai) and/ or Kirko (bull) and Nak (female yak) (Joshi, 1982). Most of the yak reared in Upper Slope Areas is the progeny of yak and hill cow.<br />The yak are brought from Tibet and/or Rasuwa and they are expensive. One adult yak costs about NRs 25000.00-32000.00/each (NRs 75 = 1 US$). There is a shortage of yak bulls also. About three yak bulls are reared in Kyangsing and another three in Tasitang in the Upper Slope Areas (at altitudes of 2700- 2900 m).<br />The yak bulls are selected based on following criteria: 1) at least three years of age; 2) physically fit, strong and stout; 3) well developed and pointed horn; and 4) white in coat color.<br />Farmers reported that the Chauri born from “Kirko” (Tibetan cattle) cow and yak is much better than the Chauri from yak and hill cow. There is no systematic approach followed for selection of yak and/or cow for Chauri production. Participants were keen to improve the performance of Chauri through genetic upgrading, and cited the example that one of the herders practiced crossing between Jersey cow and the yak and the Chauri (progeny) is quite good in milk production. However, it is difficult for mating between Jersey cow and the yak. So, herders were proposing A.I. for Chauri production from improved cow and yak.<br /><br />Pasture and feeding systems<br />The availability of pastures and fodder is becoming scarce. The Chauri remains in alpine pastures (3000-4500 m) for two months of July and August and the rest of the year in lower altitude oak forest (2500-3000 m). The oak forest has been seriously lopped out and threatened to its existence. Due to the shortage of pastures, the productivity of the Chauris has been decreased significantly and the Chauri farming business is no more beneficial. If the productivity of the pastures would not be improved and/or the supply of forage could not be adequate, the herders will starts abandoning the Chauri farming business within next five years.<br />The participants identified following measures for the improvements of the pasturelands and forage development:<br />• Renovation of native pasturelands by over-sowing with improved species (perennial rye grass, cocksfoot, white clover and others).<br />• Clearance of weeds and fallen trees from the pasturelands.<br />• Provision for drinking water, trails, bridges for easy access to the pasturelands.<br />• If the alpine pastures could be improved, the Chauri could stay for three months and will reduce the grazing pressure in oak forest.<br />• The on-farm pasture could be developed between the altitudes of 2500 to 2800 m for Chauris.<br />• Alpine and/or cold tolerant fodder trees should be planted as a source of fodder.<br />• Involvement of all herders in the formation of the Central Committee under the Forest User Group for the development of policies for pastureland management.<br /> <br />Animal health conditions<br />The major diseases are FMD, Red water, infertility and parasites (such as tick, flea, worms and others), which occur mainly during summer season (March/April to June/July). Each year about 10-12 Chauris die from various diseases. There is a lack of veterinary services provider. The only Veterinary Service Center is located in about 4-6 h walking distance. The farmers are adopting some local medicines to cure some diseases, for example, animals got Red water disease are fed on “Chhyang” (a locally brewed alcohol) and mustard oil, Tibetan tea leaves, the excreta of insects collected from trees and others.<br /><br />Chauri products and it marketing<br />The major Chauri products are Chhurpi (dried yak Cheese), Ghee (butter oil), Soh-si (by-product of the ‘Dhundre/Theki’ milk bucket and used for soup making), skin (mat), tail-switch (for religious purpose), Jopkyo (for meat and pack) and others. The most of the ghee produced in the areas are consumed locally (by Ani-Gumba at Chhagam) and/or collected by traders to export to Tibet. Most of the Chhurpi produced is sold to the traders, who visit the herds regularly and export to Kathmandu and India. The recent price of the Chhurpi was NRs 440.00 and for ghee NRs 500.00 per Dharni (about 2.5 kg), respectively. Herders are happy with the price and the marketing systems.<br />Some male Chauri and/or old unproductive Chauris are sometimes exported to Tibet for meat purpose, through illegal way, because the HMG/Nepal regulations do not allow export the live Chauri to other countries. In the other side, the Tibetan government does not allow entering the live animals from the quarantine point of view.<br /><br />Training needs<br />The herders identified following topics for the training: 1) field level training to herders in ‘animal health improvement’; 2) quality Chhurpi making training to all Chhurpi makers; 3) improved crossbred cattle farming tour and training; 4) hay making training in situ to the herders; 5) establishment of pasture and fodder tree nurseries; 6) training on fodder conservation such as hay- making; 7) establishment of improved pasturelands for demonstration; and 8) others.<br /><br /><br /><strong>Reference:</strong>• <br />Joshi, D.D. 1982. Yak and Chauri husbandry in Nepal.<br />• Miller, D.J. 1987. Yaks and grasses: pasturalism in the Himalayan countries of Nepal and Bhutan and Strategies for sustained development. UNDP.<br />• FAO/RAPA (1994), Selected Indicators of Food and Agriculture Development in Asia-Pacific Region, 1992/93. Bangkok<br />• Pande, R.S. 1996.Livestock development: In search of greener pastures. The Risisng Nepal. October 4, 1996.<br />• Pande, R.S. 2004. Chauri Production systems in Upper Slopes Areas, Sindhupalchok, Nepal. Fourth International Congress on Yak, September 20-26, 2004 Chngdu, ChinaNational Forage and Grassland Research Centrehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12680280011049738183noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2535044485904325297.post-20589539581608279182007-07-09T08:21:00.000-07:002011-11-25T00:31:09.464-08:00Founder of NFGRC Nepal: R S Pande<strong>Rameshwar Singh Pande</strong><br />(Founder of NFGRC. Nepal)<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhu0-fUoQx4L6PeUcWM1nfBfSuYcr0r8ETfKR3roKGK4qhcl9-gxffH_SVcO1d-t-qZ2NjXyGR0HTjsaRE3LQHmBkGDEGtx-B38zWHa8aeG2iVPBy-N_ZL9gXcHOikc8IdqxzoTHG7Z/s1600-h/RS+Pande.JPG"><img style="display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhu0-fUoQx4L6PeUcWM1nfBfSuYcr0r8ETfKR3roKGK4qhcl9-gxffH_SVcO1d-t-qZ2NjXyGR0HTjsaRE3LQHmBkGDEGtx-B38zWHa8aeG2iVPBy-N_ZL9gXcHOikc8IdqxzoTHG7Z/s200/RS+Pande.JPG" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5085218676788166786" border="0" /></a><br /><br />I<strong>. CONTACT ADDRESS/ PERSONAL DATA</strong>• Address: Chabahil, Adarsh Basti Marga 162/55, G.P.O. Box- 10245, Kathmandu. NEPAL. Tel.: (00977 1) 4460861 (R.), 9841345082 (M).Email: rameshwarpande@yaho.com<br />• Nationality/Date of Birth/Gender: Nepali/ 26th November, 1952/Male.<br />• Marital Status: Married<br />• Languages: English (fluent), Nepali (Mother tongue),Hindi (good), Urdu (basic) and local dialects<br /><br /><strong>II. EDUCATION:</strong>• Master of Agricultural Science (M Agr Sc) (Honours) Massey University, New Zealand. 1988- 1990<br />• Diploma of Agriculture (B Sc Ag), Merit, Tribhuban University, IAAS, Nepal, 1979-1980.<br /><br />III. TRAININGS:<br />• Trainings: i) On-line training on “Basic Security in the Field-Staff Safety, Health, and Welfare” April, 2007; and also participated “UN Security Orientation for Nepal” April, 2007, UN, Nepal. ii)Training/workshop on “Security, Safety and Risk Management” and “Social Inclusion/Gender” December, 2005, organized by Canadian Cooperation Office and CCO/SNV, Nepal. iii) “Results-based Management”; “Do No Harm” Project management strategies in context of conflict situation” and “Log-frame Analysis” from May, 2005, organised by Nepal Australia Community Resource Management and Livelihoods Project, Kathmandu, Nepal. iv) “Application of Geo Information Systems to Infrastructure and Resources Planning, Development and Management (GIS)", South Asian Institute of Technology (SAIT) from December, 2002 to January, 2003, Lalitpur, Nepal. v)"Project Appraisal Training Program", Nepal Administrative Staff Collage (NASC) Lalitpur, Nepal. March- April 1998. vi) "Integrated Rural Development", Institiut Penbangunan Tanah FELDA, Malaysia, July – September, 1984. vii) And, others.<br />• Computer skills: MS word, Excel, PowerPoint, SPSS, Internet and others<br /><br /><strong>IV. PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCES</strong>A) Director, National forage and Grassland Research Centre, Kathmandu, Nepal.<br />Overall planning, proposal writing and fund raising, liaison, implementation and documentation and reporting of the programme.<br />B) Freelance Consultant<br />• Consultant (Livestock Development Specialist), International Fund for Agriculture Development, Review and Implementation Support Mission, Leasehold Forestry and Livestock Development Project (IFAD Loan No. 646-NP and Grant No. 727-Np); 15 April- 05 May 2007, IFAD, Via del Serafico, 107, 00142 Rome Italy. Tel + 39 06 5459 2790. email: ifad@ifad.org<br />C) Other involvement:<br />• Rural Income Generation and Livelihoods Improvement Project, Sunsari, Nepal- a local NGO working for the livelihoods of rural communities.<br />• Also, working as a self employed freelance writer- working on various books related to forage, pasture and livestock development in Nepal.<br /><br /><strong>B) Period: April, 2003 to May, 2005/Consultant (Livestock Specialist</strong>)<br />URS International, Australia Pty Ltd, for AusAID funded "Nepal Australia Community Resource Management & Livelihoods Project" (NACRMLP), Nepal. Duties: i) Management and Administration: Served as a District Manager for the Field Office, Sindhupalchok. Played key role in “District Coordination Committee” comprising all stakeholders/Project team contributed in establishing - Field Office, coordinated and managed day to day activities, supervised about 20 staff, liaison & coordination with line agencies and community level organisations and others. ii) Project Planning, Community Development/Livelihoods Improvement: Provided support to develop and disseminate policies and technical findings to support the economic and social development of the community people. Supported in preparation of annual plan/annual/six monthly report and other progress reports based. Supported to other programmes like a)Livelihoods Improvement Plan (LIP), b)Women Empowerment Programme (WEP) and other. iii)Sustainable Natural Resource Management: Conceptualised the implemented approaches and modalities to facilitate the easy access and income generation opportunities for the landless poor and disadvantage group (DAG) for enhanced equity and diversifications of the productivity of the community resources. Initiated various approaches on forage, livestock and agricultural production programmes for sustainable natural resource management and improved livelihoods. Coordinated/organised capacity building training, study tours and workshops. iv)Action Research and Demonstration: Initiated and carried out field based research on community natural resources, socio-economic studies and impact evaluation of the initiated programmes. v)Training, workshop and reports: Identified training needs, developed programmes to organise/facilitated training, study tours to the community members, stakeholders and staff. Supported/facilitated to organise workshops, meetings and discussions related with project activities/programmes. Prepared reports of the all completed activities/programmes, documented lessons learned. The experiences are documented and published in: a) “Pro-poor Community Forage Production Programme in the Nepal Australia Community Resource Management and Livelihoods Project, Nepal” Proceedings of the Workshop on Fodder Oats TCP/NEP/2901- FAO, 8-11 March 2005. b) “Ensuring forage supply from Nepal’s community forests”. APANEWS, Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter No. 25. December 2004. c) “Chauri Production systems in Upper Slopes Areas”, Sindhupalchok, Nepal. Fourth International Congress on Yak, Sep. 20-26, 2004, China.<br /><br /><strong>C) May, 1998 to March, 2003 /Livestock & Agricultural Specialist</strong>TYPSA International for European Community funded "Gulmi-Arghakhanchi Rural Development Project (GARDP II)", Nepal. Duties: i) Head of the Livestock Sector Contributed to achieve the improved socio-economic conditions of the rural farmers through developing/initiating modalities and approaches on small-scale agro/livestock-based income generating activities. ii)Project Planning & Management: Developed sub-project documents (SPD: a complete set of project protocol) for overall programme planning, budgeting, implementing, monitoring and reporting. Facilitated to prepare Village Annual Work Plan and Village Master Plan. Prepared strategies paper for the agro/livestock based economic development in the project districts; identified farmer’s needs for the improvements of the rural economy by enhancing the production and productivity of the agricultural/livestock commodities. Developed monitoring and evaluation packages for staff, programmes and User's Group. iii) Technical/agricultural/livestock and small-scale rural enterprises: Developed various sub-project documents (SPD) such as food security, improved nutrition and income generation activities focusing on poor, DAG and women members. Coordinated and organised training to the farmers & technical staff. Facilitated in market and marketing development for agricultural/livestock products; and promoted small-scale rural enterprises for the income generation and economic development. iv)Community Development/mobilisation: Conceptualised and practiced the saving and credit programmes in most of the livestock/agricultural related Users Groups by establishing Revolving Fund and operating saving programmes by the respective User Groups (UGs) and others comprising mainly disadvantage groups, women and poorest of the poor households. v)Emergency relieve and social disaster management: Developed and implemented emergency relieve programme of income generation and skill improvements to the households affected from natural disaster (flooding, landslide) and the households affected from socially conflict. vi)Training, co-ordination, liaison and reporting: Identified needs for training, facilitated/organised meeting, workshop, observation tours, training and others. Coordinated/ liaison with GOs/INGOs relating to community based activities. Prepared extension materials, training manual for farmers and technical staff. Prepared progress reports (monthly, six monthly and annual) preparation, preparation of extension/training manual and others and submitted to European co-director/Team Leader.<br /><br /><strong>D) May 1981 to May, 1998: Livestock Development Officer, </strong>Department of Livestock Services (DLS) and its district level offices/farms/projects. The DLS is a sole government organisation for the overall livestock development in the country- Nepal. Responsibilities-<br />i) July, 1997 to May, 1998, Livestock Development Officer (Class II) at District Livestock Services Office, Bhojpur, Responsibilities: served as an office in-charge and contributed to overall programme planning, implementation, budget operation and supervision of livestock development activities.<br />ii) May, 1992 to July, 1997. Chief of the Pasture and Nutrition Section- contributed to execute planning, implementation of fodder, pasture and rangeland development activities by developing guidelines, directives to execute feed, forage and rangeland improvement activities in the country. Supervised and monitored forage and rangeland development programmes carried out by district level offices and farms.<br />iii) January, 1991 to April, 1992, Programme Planner (on deputation); Himalayan Pasture and Fodder Research Network- Nepal, India, Bhutan and Pakistan, Major duties: supported in organisation and oversee the overall research and development activities in the network countries (Nepal, India, Bhutan and Pakistan), carried out trails/experiments related to pasture and fodder research and development; conducted/organised workshop/in-service training and technical meetings between networking countries.<br />iv) June 1990 to December, 1990, Assistant Livestock Development Officer (Planning and Monitoring), Department of Livestock. Supervised and monitored 'Northern Belt Pasture and Fodder Development Programme' implemented in ten districts of Himalayan region.<br />v) September, 1986 to June, 1990, Farm Manager, Rasuwa Pasture Development Farm, Nepal. During this period awarded scholarship and completed degree. <br />vi) May 1981 to September, 1986, Assistant Livestock Development Officer, Livestock Development Project Janakpur/Baitadi, Nepal.<br />The experiences are published in: a) Pande, R.S. and D. R. Pradhan, 1997: Nepal's Experience with Forage and Pasture Development and Forage Seed Production. Proceedings of the Regional Expert Meeting on ‘Rangelands and Pastoral Development in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region”, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, 1997. b) Pande, R. S. 1992: Need for Agro-silviculture to meet the demand of livestock feed in Nepal? Proceedings of the Regional Expert Consultation on Agro-silviculture to support Animal Production in Asia and the Pacific. RAPA Publication - 1992/12, Bangkok.1992. c) Pande, R. S. 1994: Promising Species for Fodder and Pasture Development in Nepal. Proceeding of the IInd National Conference on Science and Technology, June 8-11, 1994, Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (RONAST), 1994; and other.<br /><br /><strong>V. MAJOR PUBLICATION:</strong>• Pande, RS 2006. Potential of Canadian Forage Sorghum in improving fodder supply for small dairy farmers in Nepal” APANEWS, Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter, Philippines, No. 28, July 2006.<br />• Pande, RS 2005 “Pro-poor Community Forage Production Programme in the Nepal Australia Community Resource Management and Livelihoods Project, Nepal” Proceedings of the Workshop on Fodder Oats, Fodder Technology Packages and Small Farm Income Generation. FAO 8-11 March 2005.<br />• Pande, R S 2004. Ensuring forage supply from Nepal’s community forests. APANEWS, Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter No. 25. December 2004.<br />• Pande, R.S. 2004. Chauri Production systems in Upper Slopes Areas, Sindhupalchok, Nepal. Fourth International Congress on Yak, September 20-26, 2004 Chngdu, China. <br />• Pande, R.S; P. D. Kemp; J Hodgson, 2002: Preference of goats and sheep for browse species under field conditions. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 2002, Vol. 45:97-102. <br />• Pande, R.S. and D. R. Pradhan, 1997: Nepal's Experience with Forage and Pasture Development and Forage Seed Production. Proceedings ‘Rangelands and Pastoral Development in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region”, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, 1997.<br />• Book: Pande, R. S. 1997: Fodder and Pasture Development in Nepal. Udaya Research and Development Services Pvt. Ltd, Sanepa, Lalitpur/Kathmandu, Nepal.1997.<br />• Pande, R. S. 1996: Livestock, Farmers and Environment. Environment (A Journal of Environment) HMG/N, Ministry of Population and Environment. Vol. 1, Number - 1, Special issue on the Occasion of the World Environment Day, 1996. <br />• And other over 70 research and extension articles.<strong></strong>National Forage and Grassland Research Centrehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12680280011049738183noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2535044485904325297.post-37319343040950886812007-07-09T00:32:00.000-07:002007-07-26T18:11:22.780-07:00National Forage and Grassland Research Centre, Nepal<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj21naFSljWba8gCURt0WUGJ3KzY_M_6rF9wvWuTsdq5sfG5KkzKgPzw94AGPCxT2M2dEwbWsOgtY4Og5B94pqxXnV9n-v4-_zurSHU4ebE4UScjQEGos0fKOVSyC_1t8rf7TW0dFs9/s1600-h/NFGRC-Logo.bmp"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj21naFSljWba8gCURt0WUGJ3KzY_M_6rF9wvWuTsdq5sfG5KkzKgPzw94AGPCxT2M2dEwbWsOgtY4Og5B94pqxXnV9n-v4-_zurSHU4ebE4UScjQEGos0fKOVSyC_1t8rf7TW0dFs9/s200/NFGRC-Logo.bmp" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5091677884780137826" /></a><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjj7Fm7E09Kcr8KjTKY3VD6RB9IrkVUMNlkAoFu60CgUq8hpMpzAli5JD_xlmkES8GEf224mNJaxxfCxg_m1q2RlCM4IJP7hbYE-xZ_TlTZ6qMvwGAl3JvYSlAUtIw2crLYgzChjhW/s1600-h/Nepal-flag.gif"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5085216555074322530" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjj7Fm7E09Kcr8KjTKY3VD6RB9IrkVUMNlkAoFu60CgUq8hpMpzAli5JD_xlmkES8GEf224mNJaxxfCxg_m1q2RlCM4IJP7hbYE-xZ_TlTZ6qMvwGAl3JvYSlAUtIw2crLYgzChjhW/s200/Nepal-flag.gif" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><strong><span style="font-size:180%;">National Forage and Grasslands Research Centre (NFGRC/Nepal)<br /></span></strong>Chabahil Adarsh Basti Marg, 162/55<br />P.O. Box 10245, Kathmandu<br />Tel: 00977-1-4460861<br />E-mail: NFGRC.nepal@gmail.com<br />www:http://nfgrcnepal.blogspot.com<br /><br /><p><br /><br /><br /><strong>1.0 Background:</strong><br />Livestock is an essential component of the subsistence farming systems in Nepal. Over 90 percent (30,17,500 households) are involved in agricultural activities and almost all households rear some kind of livestock. It is one of the major occupations especially in the high altitude regions where crop production is limited due to low temperature and lack of suitable agricultural lands. Livestock population per unit of agricultural land is highest in Nepal. Majority of the animals are underfed and in half starved conditions leading towards low livestock production and productivity. Conventional believe that livestock thrives on agricultural by-products and grazing on natural resources created numerous problems related with poor fodder supply and deterioration on the natural resources especially the vegetation and bio-diversity conservation. Farmers' deep knowledge on traditional fodder tree plantations, availability of extensive native pasturelands and rich sources of diversified pasture species are poorly explored and needs to give due priority. National Forage and Grasslands Research Centre is a registered non-governmental organisation and established in 1994 (BS 2051) for the conservation and improvements of forage and grasslands through research and development in the country.<br /></p><p><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5085217057585496178" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRX-9sjoc-IDCSIide5g7ZwlUshciu_einLddYDnBwWx58C4s1x6MYydZgFPSq-ON0EjtEj3P7PvM62VwqEmkcEdqCQAM2y13FL2fm9JCEqoi3KuiUnroewJ8kdJ9KqsFEW8L60GDx/s200/map+of+nepal.gif" border="0" /></p><p><br /><strong>2.0 Goal and Objectives:<br /></strong>The goal of the NFGRC/Nepal is to improve the living standards of the livestock herders' through sustainable use of forage and grasslands resources. The specific objectives include:<br />· Conservation and sustainable management of forage resources.<br />· Innovation and application of appropriate technologies related to forage and livestock development.<br />· Establishment of working-linkage with similar organisation at national / international level.<br />· Publications of research/extension materials.<br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiv4RYF-6qhTPJFRBGOSM59lB3h5NNYiOF4Nf0vOFZ6qApYRppPxxtoPgx6mkeVEmjIa4UAaq1yr1sHPBWpOuZxciEpiEuJr_BmOfZjOH4Js9MxQwyuEeWPUAof-G6IO2CiaMWzanr1/s1600-h/Nepali+hamlet+%26++Himal.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiv4RYF-6qhTPJFRBGOSM59lB3h5NNYiOF4Nf0vOFZ6qApYRppPxxtoPgx6mkeVEmjIa4UAaq1yr1sHPBWpOuZxciEpiEuJr_BmOfZjOH4Js9MxQwyuEeWPUAof-G6IO2CiaMWzanr1/s200/Nepali+hamlet+%26++Himal.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5085366492382625938" /></a><br />Reg. No.: 293/17/051<br /><br /><strong>3.0 Activities:<br /></strong>The major activities of NFGRC/Nepal are as follows:<br />· Carry out research in the field of forage, pastures, duel- purpose crops and livestock improvements.<br />· Conduct environmental impact assessment especially created by wild/domestic animals.<br />· Organise seminars, workshops, and training programmes on forage, grasslands, livestock and environment-related field.<br />· Deliver consultancy services in the above areas.<br />· Publish research papers, journals, books, booklets and others.<br /><br /><strong>4.0 Resources:<br />4.1 Professional manpower:<br /></strong>Professional manpower of national/international level is one of the core resources of the NFGRC/Nepal. The eminent and renowned personalities with a wide range of experiences in the areas of their expertise are affiliated with the Centre. Lists of professionals directly associated with the Centre are as follows:<br /><br />· Mr. Rameshwar Singh Pande: Livestock and Forage Expert, holds M Agr Sc (Honours) in Plant Science from New Zealand. Mr. Pande has published 3 books and over 20 research papers on fodder, pasture and livestock improvement. He has served over 25 years in Governmental as well as International Non-Governmental Organisations.<br />· Dr Naba Raj Debkota, PhD, Associated Professor, Tribhuvan University, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Rampur</p><p>Mr. Bishnu K.C: Development Planning and Management Expert, holds M A. (Economics) from TU Nepal. Mr. K.C. has over 10 years professional experience including governmental as well as International Non-Governmental Organisations.<br />· Mr. Yogendra Raut: Pasture Ecologist, holds, M Sc Ag (Pasture Ecology). Mr. Raut has served over 20 years including governmental as well as International Non-Governmental Organisations.<br />· Dr. Udaya Singh: Animal Science/Veterinary Expert, holds M V Sc from India. Dr Singh is a well reputed Planner/Administrator and served as a Director General of Agriculture and Livestock Department respectively.<br />· Mr. Raj Kumar Roka: Forester/Environmentalist, holds B Sc Forestry from TU Nepal.<br />· Ms. Sumitra Pande: Gender Specialist, holds MA from TU Nepal.<br /><br /><strong>4.2 Physical resources:<br /></strong>NFGRC/Nepal has a well equipped office with library and computer facilities and a participatory field research station at different ecological zones viz. Terai (Sunsari), mid-hill (Syanja) and high hills (Rasuwa/Sindhupalchok).<br /><br /><strong>5.0 Present activities:<br /></strong>· On-farm trials on perennial legumes for dry matter production and seed yield.<br />· Experiment on year round fodder production using herbaceous and tree fodder.<br />· Study on performance of various fodder crop native/exotic for high altitude regions.<br />· Survey and review on feeds and forage resources of Nepal.<br /><br />6<strong>.0 Publications:<br /></strong>· Reference book "Feeds and Fodder Development in Nepal (Nepali) 1996". National Forage and Grasslands Research Centre, Kathmandu.<br />· Reference materials "Fodder and Pasture Development in Nepal 1997". Published jointly with Udaya Research and Development Services, Kathmandu, Nepal.</p>National Forage and Grassland Research Centrehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12680280011049738183noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2535044485904325297.post-55523713601961543242007-07-09T00:11:00.000-07:002007-07-28T19:04:03.559-07:00Grassland Resources in Nepal<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjadZEyCBoRwv3BiHxdBm7y4SnlY6E-GimnEzBmab4koQz54fOcscGLQwNZYreIUmGK6PgCb0vPX7LPvGBxjFWvYfUk_QbEup_k_m9d9TcWjPrWgKQ3NUB8oEMh1cLYFiJNlDviBJcI/s1600-h/RS+Pande-+Mustang.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjadZEyCBoRwv3BiHxdBm7y4SnlY6E-GimnEzBmab4koQz54fOcscGLQwNZYreIUmGK6PgCb0vPX7LPvGBxjFWvYfUk_QbEup_k_m9d9TcWjPrWgKQ3NUB8oEMh1cLYFiJNlDviBJcI/s200/RS+Pande-+Mustang.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5092433433952013730" /></a><br /><br /><strong>Grassland Resources in Nepal </strong><br /><br /><br />By: Rameshwar Singh Pande, NFGRC-Nepal<br />Posted on July, 2007<br /><br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong>:<br />Grasslands are naturally occurring areas dominated herbaceous plants (grasses, herbs, shrubs and thin stand of trees), which are grazed/browsed by ruminants. Out of total geographic area of 14.7 million ha, about 1.7 million ha are considered as grasslands in Nepal. Grasslands are the important resource of feed for domestic as well wild ruminants.<br /><br />Grasslands, especially of the lower altitude areas originated principally by clearing the forests mainly for timber, fuel wood and other household items and continuous grazing by the ruminants. Similarly, above 4000 masl the climate is too severe for tree growth, which resulted in the development of the meadow of small grasses and bushes. Thus, except the alpine meadows above the timberline the grasslands of the Terai and Hills are primarily the products of the forest retrogression. Most of the grasslands of the lower altitudes are converted into croplands.<br /><p><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTTfhCMCgj-reokyTKRTP-hf3XsXgw5DSS5n-SUHXp8TY43yC9AA3skjVouXpTVj8G7ul8g1DhuJc2QzoH6ObcnZFw496ZTqSkZRBLdNv4FSxMJZ76wLWjpriAz6G8_9OLkYBG2ioL/s1600-h/Mobile++Chauri+Shed,+Bagam.JPG"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5085206865628102722" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTTfhCMCgj-reokyTKRTP-hf3XsXgw5DSS5n-SUHXp8TY43yC9AA3skjVouXpTVj8G7ul8g1DhuJc2QzoH6ObcnZFw496ZTqSkZRBLdNv4FSxMJZ76wLWjpriAz6G8_9OLkYBG2ioL/s200/Mobile++Chauri+Shed,+Bagam.JPG" border="0" /></a><br /><br />Most of the high altitude grasslands are found spreading on natural slopes and the catchment area of the rivers. The physical conditions of these grasslands not only contribute to feed production but also effects on the environmental conditions of the regions.<br /><br />Owing to the continuous and overgrazing of the grazing lands, pastures, palatable grass/legume species have been selectively grazed out and gradually eliminated, leading to the dominance of unpalatable and undesirable grass and bushes. Such a misuse/uncontrolled grazing have resulted in extreme deterioration of the grazing areas. The situation is worse in the vicinity of the village. In the lower regions, pastures are grazed through out the year whereas in the higher altitude there is little respite due to the severe winter snow which inhibits the movement of livestock.<br /><br />Most of the accessible grasslands are degraded and low productive mainly due to the mismanagement and overgrazing. Such degraded grazing lands caused excessive water run off and accelerated soil erosion. ICIMOD reported that the soil loss for a typical middle Mountains of Nepal is estimated 20-100 tons/ha/yr. from poorly managed slopping terrace and 40-200 Mt/ha/yr. from degraded grasslands. Such severe soil loss could be saved through proper management. One study showed that loss of topsoil due to erosion was 25 times in mismanaged pasture compared to the managed one.<br /><br />Lack of the legume component and the excessive grazing pressure resulted in poor soil fertility, eroded surface, poor water retention capacities, low productivity of poor quality pastures. Most of the accessible grazing lands in the high altitude regions are unproductive. Availability of feed is becoming less and less for the grazer and the livestock rearing has become uneconomical business. In the Trans - Himalayan steppe zone such as Mustang, Manang and DolKha the situation is highly crucial.<br /><br />It is assumed that the rangelands of Nepal are producing only 25 percent of its potential; and again over 40 percent of the produced fodder could not been utilised due to the inaccessibility of these areas. Mainly due to steepness, remoteness, lack of trails, drinking water facilities etc. Little attempt has been done to improve these rangelands in the past. However, at high altitude region, boarding to autonomous region of Tibet, Government of Nepal through Department of Livestock Services has been implementing Pasture Development Programme especially in ten districts through its Northern Belt Pasture Development Programme (NBPDP). FAO funded projects such as High Altitude Pasture Development (NEP 85/007); Himalayan Pasture and Fodder Research Network (RAS/79/121) and many NGO's such as Swiss Development Assistance (SATA), Pakhribas Agriculture Centre (PAC), Lumle Agriculture Centre (LAC), CARE/Nepal etc have been implementing research and development programmes in Pasture, fodder and rangelands improvement.<br /><br />The present need for the nutrition of ruminants is the supply of adequate quantity of basal fodder rather than the improvements of the existing feed quality. Proper management and improvement of the rangelands will be helpful to solve many of the exiting nutritional, economical and environmental issues for the livestock development. Present work on pasture and rangelands development has contributed significantly on feed supply. However, the work done in pasture and range improvement is not sufficient to tackle the existing problems.<br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFvxP1wK6nVpNvoBoNVxwVjYku83RXj8b7CT_VLS93eu5WZVYUv5gSfaSzbZ2n8kn-tcEZf3iqnW_RFMAWfZ0POOiCx1fEKa6fLD7JjL0GZR3LKlGLekKfvvLqyyEFCbwizSFYu68t/s1600-h/RSPande+-+Community+forage+Block,+Sindhupalchok+2005.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFvxP1wK6nVpNvoBoNVxwVjYku83RXj8b7CT_VLS93eu5WZVYUv5gSfaSzbZ2n8kn-tcEZf3iqnW_RFMAWfZ0POOiCx1fEKa6fLD7JjL0GZR3LKlGLekKfvvLqyyEFCbwizSFYu68t/s200/RSPande+-+Community+forage+Block,+Sindhupalchok+2005.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5092428808272235922" /></a><br /><br /><strong>2 Areas and Distribution of Grasslands<br /></strong>It is estimated that over 1.7 million ha of land is considered as grasslands which comprises approximately 11.5 percent of the total land resources on Nepal. Area of the grasslands increases so as the elevation. Out of total area under grasslands, over 98 percent is located in Middle hills and mountains and less than 2 percent grasslands are found in Terai. Grasslands of Terai are mainly confined inside the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.<br />Area and type of grasslands according to the ecological region:<br />· Mopuntains - Temperate/alpine grasslands in 1082,232 ha<br />· Hills - temperate/sub-tropical grasslands in 545335 ha<br />· Terai - tropical grasslands in 74101 ha<br /><br />3. Grassland vegetation<br />Due to the extreme climate variations, different types of grasslands are found in Nepal. Nepal is rich in biodiversity; over 6,500 species of flowering plants have been recorded to be found (Pulunin and Stainton, 1985). Shrestha (1989) also reported about 3,283 plant species in Arun valley alone. It was estimated that over 180 species of different species of grasses and legumes are found. Most of these species are grasses, only few species are legumes such as Astragalus spp, Medicago SP, Desmodium spp and others.<br /><br />On the basis of physiographic and ecological distribution of grasslands, Livestock Master Plan (1993) identified following type of vegetation:<br />· Tropical: Phragmitis- Saccharum- Imperata type<br />· Sub-tropical: Themeda- Arundinella type<br />· Temperate: Andropogon type<br />· Subalpine: Danthonia type<br />· Alpine: Kobresia type<br />· Steppe:<br /><br /><strong>3.1 Tropical Grasslands Vegetation (Phanta):</strong><br />The Southern Terai belt has tropical types of vegetation. Such types of vegetation are found up to the elevation below 1,000 m, where the climate is humid - warm tropical. In this zone, summer is hot (35-38oC) and cool winter. Rainfall is quite heavy during monsoon (July to September). Average rainfall is 1917 mm/yr. Most of the growth of the grasses takes place during monsoon period. Humid tropical rangelands are more confined in the national park, wildlife reserves of Southern belt.<br /><br />The grasslands of this zone are called "Phanta" in Nepali. The characteristic feature of such rangeland is the dominance of tall grasses like Phragmites, Sacharum, and Imperata spp. These grasses have low feeding value, however, these grasses provides excellent shelter to the wildlife. The grasslands of this zone are associated with the evergreen hardwood forest.<br />¨ Major grasses: Andropogon pumilus, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bothriochoa odorata, Chrysopogan aciculatus, Cynoden dactylon, Desmostachys bipinnata, Hymenachne pseudoinlerrupta, Imperata cylindrica, Ischaemmum timorense, Narenga porphyroecoma, Panucum natatum, Paspalum conjugatum, Phragmites karka, Saccharum arundinaceum, Sacchrrum bengalense, Saccharum spotaneum, Sclerostachya fusca, Sporobolus indicus, Vetiveria zizaniodes and others.<br />¨ Major fodder tree and shrubs: Artocarpus lakoocha, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus religiosa, Zizyphus jubuta, Tamarindus indica, Bahunia variagata, Dalbergia sissoo and others.<br /><br />Tropical grasslands are rapidly disappearing. For example, most of the tropical grasslands outside the national parks and wildlife reserves are converted into cultivable lands. Remnants of these species can be found in the uncultivated barren lands, river and roadside. No attempts have been made to evaluate the feeding value of these grasses in Nepal. As these grasses are coarse and fibrous, the feed value is considered as low. Besides the animal feed these grasses also used for thatching, to prepare household materials such as broom, mats and for paper mills. The DM production is considered is about 3-4 Mt/ha of herbaceous forage and about 250 kg of browse per hectare. Wide ranges of tree/shrub species grown in this region are used fodder source.<br /><br /><strong>3.2 Sub-tropical Grasslands Vegetation<br /></strong>This type of grasslands is found in the Middle hills between the elevations of 1,000-2,000 m. In this zone sub-tropical climate is found. The average temperature is 15- 20oC and rainfall is 1,700 mm/yr. These are the open grazing lands appears in a small patches associated with the evergreen forests around the vicinity of human dwellings. The forest vegetation is Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii); Chilaune (Schima wallichii) and Castenopsis spp). These rangelands are developed by clearing the forest trees for domestic use. The characteristic feature of these rangelands is the domination of the Arundinella; Themeda, Thysanolaena and other grass species. Most of the grasslands suitable for crop cultivation are converted into the croplands.<br /><br />Most of these grasslands are heavily grazed and in poor conditions. The productivity of these grasslands are estimated to be about 1.5 to 2.0 mt DM/ha of herbaceous forage and 300 kg/ha of browse materials. The feed quality of these grasses is of medium quality. A list of major species of these types of grasslands is as follow:<br /><br />¨ Major grasses: Andropogon pumilis, Apluda mutica, Arundinell bengalensis, Arundinella nepalensis, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bothriochloa decumbens, Chrysopogon fulvus, Chrysopogon gryllus, Chrysopogon jwarancusa, Capillipedium parviflorum, Cymbopogon microtheca, Cymbopogon stracheyi, Cynodon dactylon, Dimeria fuscescens, Digitaria setigera, Digitoria cruciata, Eragrostiella leioptera, Eragrostis nigra, Eulaliopsis binata, Eleusina indica, Heleropogon contortus, Isachna globusa, Ischaemum baratum, Oplismenus compositus, Paspalidium flavidum, Paspalum dilitatum, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Penisetum clandestinum, Penisetum pedicellatum, Perotis hordeiformis, Polygonum spp, Sporobolus fertilis, Thysanolaena maxima and others.<br />¨ Major fodder trees/shrubs are:<br />Artocarpus lakoocha, Bauhinia purpurea, Boehmeria rugulosa, Bomax malabaricum, Utea brondosa, Erythrina variegata, Eugenia jambolana, Ficus religiosa, Garuga pinnta, Litsea monopetala, Morus alba, Premna spp, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia tomentosa, Ziziphus spp and others.<br /><br /><strong>3.3 Temperate Rangelands Vegetation (Kharka)</strong><br />This type of rangelands is found in between the elevation of 2,000 - 3,000 m. In this zone summer, is mild and winter is cold, average temperature is 10-15oC. Average rainfall is 1500-1700 mm/yr. This type of rangelands is characterized by the domination of Andropogan spp. The most common species such as Pennisetum flaccidum (Nepali name: Dhimso) is used to make hay by the farmers of these region. This rangelands are associated with the evergreen oak (Quercus spp and Pinus excelsa) forest. Study on species composition of natural rangelands at Guthichaur Sheep Farm, Jumla in June 1989 showed that Chrysopogan grylus and Arundinella hookerii are the major indigenous grass species either in caged or uncaged areas. The Relative Density was 54.5 and 33.2 percent respectively in the caged areas, whereas in the uncaged area the relative Density was 70.0 and 18.4 percent of the above-mentioned two species.<br /><br />The major species are found in such rangelands are as follow:<br />¨ Major grasses: Agropyron canaliculatum, Agropyron semicostatum, Agrostis canina, Agrostis falipus, Agrostis micrantha, Agrostis muriantha, Agrostis pilosula, Anaphalis contorta, Andropogon pumilus, Andropogen tritis, Arundenella hookerii, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Bromus ramorus, Bothriochloa bladhii, Calamagrostis epigejos, Calamagrostis emodensis, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites , Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon distans, Cymbopogon microtheca, Danthonia jacqnemontii, Deschampsia caespitosa, Deyeuscia scabrescens, Digiterai spp, Eragrostis nigra, Erigeron alpinus, Elymus caninus, Eulalia mollis, Festuca gigantea, Festuca ovina, Festuca rubra, Helictotrichon asperum, Keoleria cristata, Muhenbergia spp, Miscanthus nepalensis, Oryzopsis aequiglumis, Paspalum spp, Pennisetum flaccidum, Poa pratensis, Poa alpina, Poa annua, Polygonum spp, Seteria pallidefusca, Schizachyrium delarvayi, Stippa concinna, Taraxacum officinale, Themeda quadrivalis, Thymus serphyllum, Trisetum spicatumm, Trisetum micans and others.<br />¨ Major legumes: Desmodium spp, Medicago denticulata, Medicago lupinina, Pretropis cytosoides, Trigonella emodi, Vicia spp and others.<br />¨ Major fodder tree/shrubs: Alnus nepalensis, Bassia butyracea, Bauhinia purpurea, Brassaiopsis hainla, Grewia tiliaefolia, Saurauia nepaulensis, Ficus nemoralis, Buddleja asiatia, Ficus clavata, Wandlandia exerta, Castanopsis indica, Celtis australis, Eurya spp and others.<br /><br />Temperate rangelands have major contribution in high altitude livestock farming. The productivity of these rangelands is estimated about 1- 1.5 mt DM/ha of herbaceous forage and 1,500 kg of browse/ha.<br /><br /><strong>3.4 Sub-alpine Rangelands Vegetation</strong><br />These rangelands are found in between the elevation of 3,000 - 4,000 m. The region is semi arid, average temperature is 3 – 10°C, and annual rainfall is very low varies from 150-500 mm/yr depending on location. These rangelands are the important sources of animal feed for the migratory stock. Nomadic herds of yak, chauris and sheep heavily depend on these grazing lands during summer. The grasses are associated with Rhododendrons, Betula spp, Tsuga dumosa, Danthonia, Stipa spp.<br /><br />The major vegetation is as follow:<br />¨ Major grasses: Agrostis inaequiglumis, Agrostis pilosula, Agrostis tenuis, Anthoxanthum hookerii, Arrhanatherum elatius, Bromus himalaicus, Calamagrostis emodensis, Calamagrostis pulchella, Crotalaria albida, Danthonia schneideri, Duthiea nepalensis, Elymus canaliculatus, Elymus dehuricus, Elymus nuleris, Elymus schrenleiannus, Festuca eumminsii, Festuca leptopogon, Festuca omina, Helictotricton virescens, Medicago lupina, Poa alpina, Poa ludens, Poa polycolea, Stipa concinna, Stipa duthiea, Stipa koelzei, Stipa regeliana, Stipa seliria, Triluria oreophilia, Trisetum spicatum and others.<br />¨ Major legumes: Medicago lupina, Vicia tetrasperma and others.<br />¨ Major Shrubs: Berberis, Caragana, Junipers, Potentiall, Rosa, Spiraea and others.<br />¨ Major trees: Rhododendron spp, Juniperus spp, Betula spp, Rosa spp, Potentilla spp, Berberis and others.<br />¨ Major fodder tree/shrubs: Albizzia leblek, Betula spp, Brassaiopsis glomerulata, Castanopsis tribuloides, Ilex dipyrena, Machilus odoratissima, Quercus semicarpifolia, Quercus lamellosa, Symplocos spp and others.<br /><br />The productivity of this rangeland is about 1.5 t DM/ha of the herbaceous foliage.<br /><br /><strong>3.5 Alpine Rangelands Vegetation<br /></strong>Such type of rangelands is situated above 4,000 m. Most of the year these rangelands are covered with snow. During summer when snow melts the grasses grow very quickly and complete the life cycle. During these period these rangeland provides 3 - 4 months of grazing to the nomadic herds of Yak, Chauris and sheep.<br /><br />A small of different plant community are common in this region. Department of Medicinal Plants (1976) reported that in alpine meadow of Langtang Valley the major species were Cortia depressa and Kobresia spp. In the Cortia type meadow 40-80 percent of the coverage was occupied by Cortia depressa and the subsidiary species were Potentilla pedunculosa, Primula obliqua, Carex spp and Geranium polyanthes. Whereas in the Kobresia type meadow, Kobresia spp occupied 40-90 percent of the coverage and the subsidiary species were varying in different sites. In the slopes the meadow were dominated with gramineous vegetation. The major species were Carex spp, Agrostis and Poa spp. On the level ground of open meadow Caltha palustris was a dominant species. The abundance of Caltha spp on well-grazed rangelands may be due to the unpalatability of this species to the animals. Caltha could be poisonous to the livestock. The other major species on level ground was Potentilla coriandifolia.<br /><br />On the exposed ridge the dominant species was Oxygraphis gracialis. Whereas on gravely slopes with mosey ground cover, Bistorta vaccinifolia vegetation was common. The major type of vegetation is as follow:<br />¨ Major grasses: Agrostis pilosula, Androsace lehmani, Carex spp Cortia depressa, Elymus nutans Kobrasa hookerii, Kobresia nepalensis, Poa alpina, Poa attenuata, Potentilla argyrophylla and others.<br />¨ Major forbs: Astragalus spp, Galium spp, Geranium nepalensis, Plantago lanceolata, Potentilla spp, Saxifraga spp, Taraxacum sp. Thymus serpyllum, Trifolium repens Vicia spp and others.<br />¨ Major shrubs: Berberis spp, Juniperus communis, Rhodendron spp, Rosa spp, Salix spp and others.<br /><br />The productivity of the herbaceous forage is about 1.5 mt/ha.<br /><br />Major Plant species found in the Langtang Valley are Cortia depressa , Kobresia pygmaea Caltha palustris Potentilla spp (Department of Medicinal Plant, 1976)<br /><br />3.6 Steppe Rangelands Vegetation<br />The north side of the Dhaulagiree/Annapurna Himalayan range (Manang, Mustang and Dolpa) an arid, treeless plateau; is categorized as steppe zone. The elevation range from 2,500 to 5,000 m. This entire zone is dry and receives rain less than 500 mm/annum. Wind erosion is quite common; a high velocity wind blows during afternoon.<br /><br />The soil of the region is severely eroded with loss of fine particles and organic material. Most of the areas are denuded and bare ground. The vegetation cover is sparse and poor in quality. The major vegetation type is as follows:<br /><br />¨ Major grasses: Andropogon tritis, Aristida spp, Calamagrostis spp, Crysopogon stellera, Cymbopogon stracheyi, Danthonia cachemyriana, Deyeuxia holciformis, Deyeuxia pulchella, Festuca ovina, Melica jacquemontii, Melica scaberrima, Orinus thordii, Oryzopsis lateralis, Pennisetum flaccidum, Poa alpigena, Poa pagophila, Poa poophagorum, Rumex nepalensis, Stippa spp and others.<br />¨ Legume: Medicago falcata and others.<br />¨ Major forbs: Astragalus spp, Medicago falcata, Nepata elata, Polygonum spp, Sambucus wightiana , Taraxacum spp, Thymus serpyllum, Viola spp and others.<br />¨ Major shrubs: Artemisia maritima, Berberis spp, Caragana brevispina, Caragana gerardiana, Ephedra gerardiana, Lonicera spinosa, Rosa sericea and others.<br />¨ Major trees: Juniperus squamata, Pinus wallichiana and others.<br /><br />Scattered bushes of caragana spp are observed to be appearing on such rangelands. Basnyat (1991) observed that grasses and legumes grow inside these bushes and complete its lifecycle by protecting from wind erosion and grazing. The productivity of these rangelands is very low and feed quality is also considered as low. Kandel et al. (1988) reported the plant composition and the productivity of the rangelands of Mustang regions found that the major species are Rosa sericea, Caragana spp, Artimisia sp, Cotoneaster sp, Stippa spp, Medicago falcata, Paspalum flaccidium, Anaphalis sp, Potentilla spp and others and the productivity ranges from 116- 290 kg/ha.<br /><br /><br /><strong>7. Productivity of Rangelands<br /></strong>The quality and quantity of fodder produced in natural rangelands are very poor, on an average pasture production range from 0.12 Mt DM/ha to 3.2 mt DM/ha. FAO (1990) estimate that pasture production is more in per-humid rangelands compared to the other climatic zone (Table 7.5). Similarly, an experiment was carried out to estimate DM production of native rangelands of two different sites at Solukhumbu area, Syangboche (elevation 3720-3780 m) and Tauche (elevation 4220-4400 masl). Mean DM yield recorded in September 1990 was 1010 kg DM/ha at Tauche and 1440 kg DM/ha at Syangboche.<br /><br />Pasture production is much more depends on altitude and ecological zone in natural state of growth. In the high altitude regions, above the tree line rangelands are the main vegetation. The climate is too cold and unsuitable for tree growth. The growing season is very short. For example, in Syangboche region vegetational growth starts from late April – first May depending on the initiation of the spring and ends towards mid Nov to mid Dec, which gives average 175- 204 days of vegetation growth period (Grela and Sharma, 1991). Wiart (1983) found that pasture production was highest at 2700 m altitude compared to 2000 m; 3,700 and 4,000 m. Total DM yield was 3.2, 2.02, 2.03 and 2.06 Mt DM/ha respectively; on the basis of 3 cut per year in the central regions of Nepal. Shrestha et al (1990) reported that annual DM production is approximately 3.6 Mt DM/ha in Terthum district of eastern Nepal at elevation 2040 - 2150 m and Taplejung (altitude 2,450 - 2,630 m). Similarly under Jiri conditions the fodder yield was 3 Mt DM/ha and the growing season was for 5 months<br /><br />Paudyal and Bauer (1988) found that in most of the kharka at altitude 2200 to 3,999 m in Sagarmatha National Park the grass cover was 40-50 percent. And, most of the pasture was at the height below 30 cm.<br /><br />Many exotic pasture species introduced in Nepal. The productivity of these pastures varies according to the cultivar used as well as the management practices. Mono- cultivation of ryegrass at Jumla yielded 12.6 Mt/ha (Singh et al 1990) similarly, cocksfoot 6.5 mt/ha at Jiri (Panday et al 1990a).<br /><br /><strong>8. Production and Utilization of Fodder:<br /></strong>The total production of fodder from the rangelands is 5067962.5 MT DM. A large proportions of forage losses either due to inaccessibility or due to under utilization. It is estimated that only 64 percent of the rangelands are accessible. Rest are inaccessible due to steepness, lack of trail, lack of drinking water, rocks and others. Pasture production from the accessible rangelands is only 3241428.5 MT DM. Furthermore, whole quantity of pasture produced in accessible rangelands may not be utilized by/for the livestock due to seasonality of growth, migratory system of grazing, snow fall, rain, plant senancenense and others. It is estimated that only 74.4 percent of the pasture produced in accessible area are utilized. When compared to the total pasture production, only 2413160.7 MT DM, which is 47.6 percent, are assumed to be available for grazing stock.<br /><br /><strong>9. Nutritive Value of Pastures<br /></strong>The nutritive value of the pasture depends on vegetation type and season of availability. The pasture produced in the lower zone is less nutritious and tends to be matured earlier compared to the alpine pastures. The alpine pastures are very nutritious. The average CP content is found 10.5 percent (Dhaubhadel and Tiwari 1992). Most of the migratory herd gain weight and the breeding take place while grazing on the alpine pastures.<br /><br />Calculation of DM and CP percentage of the natural alpine pastures: The alpine pastures remain most succulent and nutritious during the months of June to September. During these period, the DM percent is less than 25 and CP percent is in the peak. As the plant mature percentage of DM increases and reaches up to 80 percent during the months of February<br /><br /><strong>10. Stocking Rate and Carrying Capacity<br /></strong>Most of the available land resources are over stocked beyond its carrying capacity. Carrying capacity and stocking rate vary within the region. There is a lack of systematic study to evaluate carrying capacity of grazing areas for different stocks for the different ecological belts of Nepal. Alirol (1979) estimated that the carrying capacity is 1.4 LU/ha for Kalinchok region. Whereas Archer (1987) estimated that the carrying capacity for the high altitude regions are no more than 0.06 LU/ha/yr. In the recent study at Terhathum district, Eastern Nepal (elevation 1500-2900m) Shrestha et al, (1990) estimated that the carrying capacity is 1.7 adult cattle/ha.<br /><br />Most of the rangelands are over stocked beyond its carrying capacity and are severely grazed out. The stocking rate on agricultural land is probably highest in the world. Based on standard livestock unit (LU: 400 kg body weight), overall stocking rate on total land area is 0.36 LU per ha of total land. Similarly, on agricultural land the stocking rate is 1.33. The stocking rate is highest in Middle belt compared to Southern and Northern belt. Theoretical calculation of the stocking rate reveals that compared to the total landmass of Nepal and/or agricultural land only the stocking rate is relatively high on rangelands resources. Mean stocking rate is 3.1 LU per ha of rangelands. As the rangelands in the Southern belt is minimal the stocking rate is very high i.e. 25.3 LU.<br /><br />Compared to the stocking rate the carrying capacity of these grazing areas are very low. Overall stocking rate on rangelands resources is 3.5 times high. In the Middle belt the stocking rate is over 37 times high. Contrary to the Southern and Middle belt the stocking rate in Northern belt is less than carrying capacity. It is mainly due to the abundance of rangelands and low population of livestock.<br /><br />The differences in the estimates of the carrying capacity might be due to the measures used to quantify the carrying capacity. However, all the data presented above are estimates and most of the data represents certain regions only. The relatively high carrying capacity of the grazing areas reported by Shrestha et al (1990a) might be due to good management because the grazing lands were privately owned.<br /><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5085208519190511698" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; CURSOR: hand; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBQ_yPjfSeeXkJJOLVOGvE2pNfZnuRi-Dk8S8-0vXLP1TJ67BHSMPklAOJDmvd9538wT6meikIxrjcJkl5jo2hHQZg6JY3o-ERj8dOv43gqGHwj129ARGeHVhd3kMxLSBrgMD4jmbL/s200/Loped+Oak+forest+in+winter,+Bagam.jpg" border="0" /><br /><strong>11 Major Limitations<br /></strong>· Invasion of rangelands: Rangelands are national property utilized by community people since time immemorial. There is a lack of responsibility towards protection and conservation of the national property. Occupation and invasion of rangelands for personal use has been increasing recently. Most of the rangelands in high altitude areas around the vicinity of the villages are gradually converted into the orchard or the croplands. It was estimated that about 10 % of the community lands are annually used for this purpose in Jumla, Dolpa and Jajarkot districts.<br />· Livestock types and numbers: The number of livestock is beyond the carrying capacity of rangelands. On the other hand types of livestock are also disproportionate e.g. the number of goat population far more than sheep and the goats are considered as a destroyer of the vegetation.<br />· High cost of development: Improvements of rangelands are expensive and time-consuming programme. Due to lack of adequate budget and resources pasture improvement activities are low prioritised under HMG/N programme.<br />· People's participation: Peoples are reluctant to invest time and money for improvement of government/ community rangelands even for their own use.<br />· Technical staff: There is a shortage of technical staff in the field of pasture and fodder development. Whatever the staff are available they are reluctant to serve in remote district.<br />· Pasture species: The pasture species are low productive and are less palatable compared to exotic pastures.<br />· Training and education: The training people either farmers or staff lack proper training in pasture production and livestock management.<br />· Research and extension: There is a lack of research work on native pasture production and management system especially in Northern belt region<br /></p><p> </p><p><br /><strong>12. Recommendations<br /></strong>For the sustainable use of pasture resources for better livestock production proper attention should be paid by the concern agencies. The pasture improvement programmes should be carried out by the department of Livestock Services though the strong peoples' participation. Strong coordination should be established with the development and research organization for technology generation and dissemination of technology.<br /><br />12.1 Range Resources Inventory<br />To understand the present condition, the vegetational composition and the productive potential in relation to the existing environmental conditions, is of paramount importance for the proper range management. The present and the past utilization of the range vegetation must be investigated properly to form a basis of the range resources. The future management practices should be based on the integrated range inventory. The socio-economic aspect should be given due consideration. There is a lack of systematic study of rangelands situation in Nepal. The only source of the distribution of rangelands their condition and production potentiality are assumption of the data. Though, LRMP provides the information of the area and distribution, which was conducted in around 1980's. It was assumed that much of the land use pattern have been changed since then. Due to the human greed most of the accessible rangelands have been converted into the cultivable land.<br /><br />12.2 Grazing Management<br />Livestock is the core factor to the rangeland management. The major cause of poor conditions of pastures is due to overstocked livestock and its husbandry system. The widely proposed practices for livestock management are:<br /><br />· Stall feeding: stall feeding practices control the overgrazing of natural feed resources as well as it increases the collection of dung’s and urine which ultimately improves the soil fertility status of soil. However, in Nepalese conditions where feed deficits is a major problem, the stall fed animals may not get the adequate feed and suffers more with mal nutrition and starvation compared in scavenger grazing and can pick up anything edible.<br />· Improved animals: Breed improvements are one of the major options to reduce the number of livestock. Traditionally the farmers keep more numbers to fulfil the requirements of animal products such as milk, meat, and compost. This can be met with fewer numbers of livestock with high production under stall-fed and well management conditions.<br />· Population control: The overpopulation should be controlled especially the high number of unproductive livestock populations should be controlled either by slaughtering or by live export to neighbouring countries.<br /><br />The pastures should be grazed in a rotational basis, leaving about 25 percent of the vegetation for re-growth. Following practices should be used for proper grazing management:<br />12.3 By closing the rangelands from the grazing animals<br />Due to the continuous grazing of the natural pastures not only lowered the productivity but also caused the lower plant density per unit of lands. Closing the rangeland for grazing animals could provide the opportunity for natural seeding and propagation. However, it requires long period. The practice is quite useful and productive however, it could not be implemented under NBPDP due to the lack of people's participation. By providing resting or closing of the natural grazing areas through fencing the relative plant density and the productivity of the pastures increased significantly. For example in the Ghami Village Alt 3740 m the biomass production in the open grazing lands was 76.8 kg DM/ha whereas DM production within the fenced area was 158.0 kg/ha. The major plant species were Pennisetum, Chrysopogon, Caragana spp and others (Kandel et al. 1988). Similarly, Singh et al. (1990) reported that within the three months period of time in Jumla areas alt 2800 masl the total number of plant count was increased by 65 % in the open grazing lands. The total number of plant was 1291 in the open area where as in the caged conditions the total plant count was 1976. Similarly the green matter yield was increased by 76 percent.<br /><br />Grazing or browsing by livestock directly effects on species composition and productivity of the grassland vegetation. Livestock are selective grazier; exhibit preferences for different types of plants for their food (Pande, 1990; 1991). Some species are very palatable and selectively grazed out such as pasture legumes. When the grazing pressure is increased or there is a lack of good pasture on the sites, livestock graze on less palatable species. At the higher grazing pressure, the plants are heavily defoliated which could be detrimental to the plant survival. Most of the rangelands available in Nepal are under heavy grazing pressure, and are over grazed, deteriorated conditions and are dominated with unwanted species and weeds. Closing of the rangelands to preserve the plant diversity as well as the productivity is the effective means. Study conducted at Jumla revealed that the number of plant species and plant cover as well as biomass production was higher at the closed site compared to the open site. Similarly when the rangeland was closed for a long period resulted the consequence increase in Plant species and fodder yield<br /><br />Due to browsing most of the new seedling of plant and shrubs may inhibit growth and die. Livestock also effects on environment degradation and loss of bio diversity through trampling on ground and camping.<br /><br />12.4 Range Management<br />Indigenous techniques for the rangelands management is exist in Nepal but the techniques are not pacing with the increased livestock population and by the closure of Tibetan rangelands for Nepalese migratory herds. In the traditional system of rangelands management only resting and burning have been adopted. However, due to high grazing pressure and lack of responsibility for managing the community pastures, most of the rangelands are in deterioration conditions. The rangelands could be more productive by their judicious utilization through proper management. The improved rangeland management techniques are:<br />12.4.1 Artificial reseeding:<br />The reseeding could be done artificial means using following techniques:<br />¨ Broadcasting of seed on the grazed and tramped ground<br />¨ Broadcasting of seed on the burnt ground<br />¨ Broadcasting of seed after clearing all bushes and weeds<br />¨ Broadcasting of seed on cultivated ground.<br /><br />· Broadcasting of seed on the grazed and tramped ground: In the high altitude regions the migratory stock utilizes grazing lands during summer period. Usually, when the herd left the grazing lands the grazed out vegetation and the trampled ground offers a suitable ground for reseeding of the pasture seeds. Once the ground is reseeded with seed, the ground should be protected for al least a year for proper pasture establishment.<br /><br />· Broadcasting of seed on the burnt ground: Burning is an oldest practice to manipulate the re-growth of the vegetation. The re-growth after burning provides the quality feed to the stocks. It was observed that the forage yield, the palatability of the forage and utilization also increases following the burning due to tender and nutritious re-growth of grasses and forbs. However, haphazard and accidental burning could be harmful and disastrous. Planned burning could yield in the increased palatable forage and also removes the old dead materials from the range. Burning also suppresses the undesirable bushes and prevents the invasion of the inferior species. In some cases the new growth could be toxic to the animals. This technology was successfully practiced under NBPDP at Sindhupalchauk district, which was quite successful. After burning the pasture seeds were sown into the burnt ground. The growth and establishment was quite encouraging. Burning could be desirable in other humid region but it could be harmful in arid and dry regions.<br /><br />· Broadcasting of seed after clearing all bushes and weeds: After removing all bushes and weeds from the rangelands the seed could be sown directly on the cleared ground. In this process the rate of establishment could be low. The techniques were widely adopted under NBPDP, but the establishment was very low due to high weed competition. Furthermore, the clearing of bushes accelerated the runoff and thus soil erosion was high.<br /><br />· Broadcasting of seed on cultivated ground: The seed could be sown on the cultivated ground. There is different method for sowing seed on cultivated bed.<br />¨ Patches<br />¨ Trenches:<br />¨ Patch system: This system is quite popular for high altitude rangelands development. Under this system 5 to 10 sq. m patches of plain surface with well fertile soil are selected. The weeds and vegetation are removed and the seeds are sown into the patches. There should be at least 100 patches in one ha.<br />¨ Trench system: In trench system normally a trenches of 1.5 m X 0.5 m X 3.0 m size and at a distance of 1 m along the counter should dug out and the seed should be sown on the trench. This is the most suitable method for the arid conditions such as in Mustang.<br /><br />Sowing should be done when there is proper moisture in the soil. The best time is after commencement of monsoon shower from June onward.<br /><br />Management after reseeding is very important for getting good establishment. A rest period of two to three growing season is recommended after reseeding. The first year grazing should be light only up to 50 per cent biomass should be removed in the first season.<br /><br />12.4.2 Incorporation of legume into the existing sward:<br />Legume components in the natural rangelands of Nepal are negligible. Incorporation of the legume such as clover in the natural rangelands, not only increase the productivity and the quality of the pastures by supplying more DM and improving the nutritional quality but also improves the soil fertility level through fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Archer (1990) reported that by broadcasting white clover into the natural grazing areas of Himalayan region DM production increased by three folds compared to the existing productivity level.<br /><br />12.4.3 Introduction of Fodder Shrub/trees:<br />Fodder trees are the important source of fodder especially during the lean period. Due the deep root system these trees remains green during the dry period. Under the NBPDP 126,915 numbers of saplings were distributed in the project districts.<br /><br />12.5 Improvement of Physical Facilities<br />Most of the rangelands are difficult and inaccessible due to the lack of proper trails, bridges. The mule trails and bridges on river, rivulet should be constructed. Drinking water tank should be erected to facilitate the drinking water to the livestock.<br /><br />· Drinking water facilities: The source of water for drinking to the grazing herds is only streams or lakes in Nepal. There are no artificial facilities provided for the stocks especially at high altitude regions of Nepal. Most of these resources are located far from the grazing grounds. Most of the vegetation near the watering source are severely grazed and degraded. An optimum distribution of the watering points over the rangelands helps in proper utilization of vegetation. Under the Northern Belt Pasture Development Programme over 41 drinking water facilities were constructed during the project period.<br /><br />· Provision of Mule trails and Bridges: The rangelands should be easily accessible by the grazing stock. There should be proper trails for easy access and bridges to cross the river and rivulets. Most of the rangelands are located at high altitude regions, which are inaccessible due to the lack of trail and bridges to cross the river/rivulets. It is estimated that over 40 percent of the rangelands of high altitude regions are inaccessible. Under the Northern Belt Pasture Development Program over 39 mule trails have been constructed during the project periods.<br /><br />· Clearing of undesirable bushes: The removal of undesirable and non-palatable species from rangelands is the most important step towards range improvements. Most of the rangelands are fully covered with undesirable species such as Eupatorium spp. Eradication of such bushes and weeds provides a chance for the desirable species to flourish and utilize the available nutrients and moisture. The bush free rangelands provided five times more fodder compared to the bushy rangelands. If the area is located on a slope the bushes and the shrubs should not be exposed at once. Otherwise the topsoil will be washed away due to increased run off. The undesirable shrubs of the sloppy areas should be removed in strip gradually. In the steppe region such as Mustang the native bushes should be protected as much as possible. They are the major source for moisture conservation in this arid zone. Basnyat (1990) recommended that such bushes should be protected and the improved pasture seed should be sown inside the bushes.<br /><br />12.6 Seed/planting Material Production<br />The supply of quality seeds and the planting material is the major limiting factor to pasture improvements. The resource centre should be established through formation of the farmers groups.<br />· Nursery and Seed Source Development: To supply the seed required for the reseeding the range a handy nursery and seed source within the range area is recommended.<br />· Use of fast growing fodder crops: To solve winter feed deficiency fast growing fodder crops such as fodder radish and kale crops should be introduced and cultivated under the farmer’s field conditions.<br /><br />12.7 Fodder conservation<br />The surplus fodder grown during the summer season should be conserved as a hay or silage to feed the livestock during the lean season.<br /><br />12.8 Use of Irrigation:<br />Moisture is the major limiting factor for the better establishment as well as the performance of the natural vegetation especially of the herbaceous species. Irrigation of the rangelands could improve the productivity. The DM production of the Medicago falcata in the irrigated orchard in Mustang districts was found 2494 kg DM/ha compared to 93 kg DM/ha in the open rain-fed grazing lands at the altitude of 3610 m (Kandel et al. (1988).<br /><br />12.9 Use of Fertilization:<br />Application of fertilizer in the existing pastures is the effective and quick means to improve the productivity and the vegetational composition of the natural rangelands. But in the Nepalese contest to use fertilizer especially in pastures will be highly costly and uneconomical. Most of the rangelands of Nepal are low in Nitrogen fertilizer. By the use of Nitrogen fertilizer the productivity of the grasses species could be tripled. Grasses are more responsive to fertilizer application compared to the legumes or forbs. For legume species inoculation and the use of Phosphatic fertilizer is recommended. However, the compost and the dung’s should be used to increase the productivity of the pastures.<br />There is a lack of systematic study to evaluate the increased productivity of the native pastures by the use of fertilizers in the natural conditions. However, the trial conducted in the cultivated condition using exotic as well as native species revealed the good response of fertilizer to the production of the fodder. Pandey et al (1990 a & b) found that by the use of FYM @ 8 mt/ha as a basal dose to Rye grass and Cocksfoot cultivars at Jiri condition the fodder yield was increased by 20 % compared to the non fertilized conditions. Similarly, tiller density and the plant height were also increased due to manuring<br /><br />12.10 Training/awareness Creation:<br />Training at the farmers as well as staff is badly needed. Frequent training on pasture production, pasture management and livestock production should be conducted to create awareness towards the feeding management and environmental conservation.<br /><br />The farmers of the high altitude regions are mostly illiterate. Proper training and education for pasture management is seriously needed. During the NBPDP over 532 farmers were trained on various issues of pasture and livestock management.<br /><br />12.11 Peoples Participation:<br />Pasture development programme should be carried through the Users' groups. Management of the pasturelands should be handed to the community peoples. Technology and inputs (such as seeds and planting materials) should be provided by the concerned agency at the initial stage. Unless the strong peoples participation there is a doubt for the sustainable improvement of the pastures in the Northern belt of Nepal. </p>National Forage and Grassland Research Centrehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12680280011049738183noreply@blogger.com0