Livestock Based Livelihoods in Nepal

Livestock Based Livelihoods in Nepal
By: Rameshwar Singh Pande, July 2007





Introduction:
The consumption of livestock by-products in regular diets of Nepalese family is still a luxury. The quantity of animal products used by a household is directly co-related with the prosperity and income level. The majorities of livestock farmers are poor and the average consumption of livestock products are below the Asian standard.

The animals are worshiped as a god/goddess in majoritrities of Hindu and Buddhist communities. The livestock are assets, used as emergency capital and live cash, provide nutrition (milk, meat and eggs), soil nutrients (manure, urine and decaing carcases), energy (draught power, transportation and fuel), animal fibre (wool and hair), carcas by-products (bone, hide and skin); and associated with religious sentiments. As the larger proportion of the livestock by-products are consumed in urban centres, and by the well-off non-farming families; the livestock sector is a major source to drain cash in rural areas and to the poorer households.

Nepal is one of the least developed countries in the world; the Gross National Income per capita is just around US$ 230. In terms of economy, Nepal is in 191st place out of 208 countries, and also the Human Development Index of Nepal is just 0.499 one of the lowest position (143rd) out of 175 countries. The contribution of livestock in national economy is about 18 percent in national Gross Domestic Products (GDP) and 32 percent in Agricultural Gross Domestic Products (AGDP) (CBS, 2006). The growth rate of livestock sector is between 3.5 and 5 percent per annum is more rapid than crop. It is anticipated that the contribution of livestock sector will reach 45 percent at the end of Agriculture Perspective Plan period (1995 to 2015). Among the livestock component, the dairy sector is the most important livestock sub-component, contributing about 62 percent of the livestock to the AGDP and over 500,000 people directly invilved in dairy entreprsises. Similarly, the poultry enterprises is also an emerging economic sector, over 65,000 people are employed in commercial poultry farming. Thus the livestock sector can contribute significantly in rural poverty reduction and a tool for the rural employment generation.

Almost all kind of domesticated animals, except cameloids are raised in Nepal. Depending on elevation, livestock type and concentration varies from region to region. The major livestock in lower belt are cattle, buffaloes, goat, sheep, pigs and poultry and, at higher elevation the important animals are - Yak, Chauris, cattle, sheep and mules.

The average holding of livestock (cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats and pigs) per households is 4.9. Hovever, the overall production and productivity of individual livestock are very low mainly due to combined effects of poor forage supply, mismanagement and poor animal health care cconditions; the native breeds are smaller in body size and are low producing, but are noted for its hardiness; thrives on harsh environment and produce even under half-starved conditions.

In recent years, growing population in cities, improving income level, and significant growth of tourism have led the high demand for animal by-products such as milk, meat and eggs. The increasing demand has encouraged the farmers to rear high yielding dairy animals, adopt commercial poultry farming and goat/pig meat production especially around the urban periphery and trekking routes despite the political instability and deteriorating security situations. However, the marketing and commercialised production and processing of the livestock products are lagged behind. The processing capacity of the dairy industries have not been able to absorbe the produced milk by the farmers, and resulted in “Milk Holidays”; which have advesely affected the livelihood of the smallholders dairy farmers. Similarly, the high cost of feed ingrediants and recent threat of bird flu (avian influenza) have negetivily affected the commerical poultry farming.

The increasing population of human as well as livestock has exerted excessive pressure on available feed resources. The number of livestock per unit of cultivated land in Nepal is highest in the world. There is an excessive pressure on cropland and forest for food, fodder and fuelwood, which directly affecting the sustainability and conservation of available resources. Due to over utilisation and misuse, the available resources are in detrimental stage. Similarly, the increasing livestock and poultry production in peri-urban area under modifying management systems to meet the urban market deman has led many issues relating to rising demand of livestock feed, veterinary services, loss of genetic resources, trainng and extension to the smallscale producers, livestock waste manegemnt and transmision of zoonotic diseases and environmantal issues.

It is also argued that livestock and livestock waste produce gases (ammonia, including carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxides - affect the world's atmosphere by contributing to global warming, however, the emission of these greenhouse gases, particularly nitrous oxides and methane are major sources of bio-gas and can be used as fuel or to generate electricity. In the context to Nepal, the trend of commercial large-scale industralised production of livestock nither benefit to the majority of the farmers (e.g.commerical poulty/pig farming) nor feasible to adopt in large scale in a wider area due to scarse resources.

On the other hands, wth the importation of high yielding commercial breeds and technologies, the cabalilities and skill of the rural farmers have not been developed to adopt the improved management practices. Commercialised farming and improved feeds and forage management is relatively a new concept. Majority of the farmers, still believe that livestock thrives on natural vegetation and crop by-products, and overall livestock products only be improved by increasing the number rather than improvement in performance and the use of superior genetic materials.

Since last decade, keeping improved high yielding dairy animals, hybrid poultry farms and forage crop cultivation increased significantly.

Contrary to large holdings of animals and “milk holidays” Nepal still imports a large quatity of dairy products (milk powder), feed ingredients, live animals (goats, buffaloes), carpet wool, medicines and vaccines from other countries.
The severity of the problems faced by the farmers and the status of the rural poverty especially among the livestock farmers are still remained the same.

Being an agricultural country, ecologaically diversified, Nepal has a vast potentiality for the improvement of livestock based economy especially in the field of milk and milk by-products (cattle, buffalo and chauri), poultry, live animals (goat, sheep and pig), and other. Being an agricultural country, the Nepalese farmer practices mixed production of crop and livestock. The livestock are complementary to crop production; the crops grown solely for subsistance and the livestock sector are supplementary to crop production. The crop residues used as fodder to the animals and the animals' manure used to fertilise soil and contribute to add value to cereals; the livestock owners use labour more efficiently and diversify risk with extra income sources. Over 80 percent of the households maintain few heads of animal and poultry birds; even the land less families and ultra-poor households rear few heads of livestock.

It is anticipated that the improved supply of quality feeds and forage could alone enhance the animal production by three folds and save much of the degradations of the natural resources.

As the feed deficiency is directly related with overall performance of the animals and the natural resources management, the issues need to be addressed seriously for the livelihoods of the smallholders as well as for the transformation of the traditional farming systems into commercalised compatative market oriented production systems.

Various organisations have implemented and/or proposed different strategies to improve the situation of livestock production and livestock based poverty reduction. The community level organisations and many INGOs are using livestock mainly small animals like goats, pigs, poultry birds as a means of poverty mitigation tool and distributing animals to the targeted households.

Recently, the trend of organic livestock farming and/or sustainable livestock production is increasig. Re-establishment of the livestock production closer to feed sources in the rural areas by improving the infrasture facilities is the recent trend. The challenge is to obtain higher efficiencies without overconcentrating livestock. With improvements in transport and storage, it is possible to move livestock production closer to feed sources - i.e. back to rural areas - allowing for wastes not only to be absorbed, but returned as nutrients. Re-establishing this link would thus help to reduce the soil nutrient mining caused by feed production.

Combined with the increasing access to the modern facilities and other factors, the role and importance of livestock based livelihoods especialy in rural areas has been threatned and the increasing role of smallholder livestock production is in declinig. For example, the role of animal draught power has been replacing with mechanical power, the manure with chemical fertilisers and animal fibres with synthetic materials. On the otherhand, landless livestock/poultry production systems are being introduced and practiced by the farmers, and the rearing of livestock/poultry farming are moving rapidely from remote areas to the periphery of urban settlement due to increasing urban demand, easy market access and improved infrastructure facilities and opportinities of social security to the livestock producers. Similarly, trend to rear multipurpose to single purpose animals are increasing with the objective of production of animal protein e.g. declining of sheep number and increase of goat population.

Numerous issues needs to be addressed for the strengthening and sustained development of livestock based livelihoods, such as: a)Improving the livelihoods of the rural households especially smallholder livestock producers, b)Strengthening and enhanced capacity of the smallholder livestock producers and implementing public private agencies especially in the field of infrastructure, research and extension, credit, feeding, breeding and veterinary services, c)Import substitution of dairy products, carpet wool, feed ingredients, live animals and medines, d)Economic, resource utilization and management, and environmental sustainability, e)Compatative market oriented production, decreasing the cost of production and maintainance of Food Safety Standards of World Trade Organisation.

The Nepaleses livestock production systems can not remain untouched with the world trend. It is high time to review and discuss the issues in deapth to maintain the sustainablity and as well as to mitigate the rural poverty so as to benefit the smallholders livestock based livelihoods production systems.

In this regard, decrease the cost of production in a sustainable basis for the transformation subsistence livestock production systmes into market oriented commercialised production is critical for the improvement of the majority of rural livelihood. As the majority of the smallholders live in rural areas and depends on livestock based livelihoods, sustainable use of the natural resources to balance the conservation and livelihood is very important. In this book, the existing livestock production systems and the management of available forage resources are analysed in depth and strategies have been proposed for the sustainable use and livelihoods improvement of the smallholder livestock producers.



Livestock Population and Distribution
The population of livestock were- cattle (7.02 m including yak/chauris), buffaloes (4.2 m), sheep (0.81 m), goats (7.4 m), pigs (0.9 m), fowl (23.0 m.) and ducks (0.39 m) in Nepal in 2005/06 (ABPSD, 2006). The estimated population of Yak and Chauris are 95,400, horses-20100, mules and asses-6000 and pigeons 1845200 in 2001/02 (CBS 2006).

Livestock Holding per Households

Livestock are reared even by landless people- involved in non-agricultural activities. So, the number of households involved in livestock farming is large in Nepal and almost all farm family keep some animals. Over 3017,500 households are rearing some kind of livestock Average livestock number per family is 4.9 in Nepal. The types and number of livestock holding vary from region to region. The number of livestock per households increases, as per the altitude range. The number of livestock per households in Southern belt is 3.9 heads whereas at Northern belt the number of livestock per family is four fold high i.e. 9.6 excluding poultry. The types of livestock raised and the use of livestock much more depends on their cultural background. However, the commercial farming is adopted by all ethnic group e.g. commercial poultry farming. The livestock are even reared by the poor and landless families who do not have enough on-farm activities For example, the households with less than 0.5 ha of land keep some 25 percent of the livestock and the households with “no land” keep some 11 percent of the total livestock. So, the intervention in livestock development could provide income as well employment to eradicate rural poverty.

Contribution of Livestock

Sources of Nutrition (Milk, meat and eggs)
• Milk: The milch animals are cattle, buffaloes, Nak and Chauris; milk from ewes and she-goat are also consumed in lesser amount but not commonly marketed. The average milk production from a Nepali cow is estimated 325 lt./cow/yr, and from buffaloes is 900 lt./buffaloes/yr contrary to improved cattle and buffaloes 1250 and 1200 lit/lactation respectively. Nepal produced total of 1312,140 Mt of milk from 1988,140 milch animals during FY 2005/06 (ABPSD, 2006). Out of the total milk the contribution of Nak milk is is about 1,631 mt/year. Most of the milk produced is consumed locally and/or converted into ghee, only about 10 percent of the total production is processed for marketed. Dairy Development Corporation alone is collecting and processing 70,128 mt of raw milk, equal quantity of milk are collected by other private dairies. The Average milk availability per person is 57.7 Lt/yr, The present milk consumption in Nepal is far below compared to South Asian Countries 69 Lt and Developed Countries 213 lt) (NLSS, 2004).

• Meat: The major sources of meat are buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs and poultry. Legally, only male animals are slaughtered and consumed for meat. All ethnic communities prefer goats' meat (chevon). The meat from buffaloes, pigs and poultry are relatively cheaper and generally not consumed by higher cast e.g. Brahmin. Similarly, the Muslims do not eat pigs. In Himalayan regions fresh blood of is also consumed which is drained from live Yaks/Chauris. Though beef are not eaten, but the Sherpa people freely consume yak steaks (dried meat of yak/chauri's). The total production of meat is 219,205 Mt during FY 2005/06 ABPSD, 2006). The share of buffalo meat is 64.8 and goat is 19.5 and pigs and poultry is 7.2 and 7.2 respectively. Besides the above quantity it is estimated that 5 Mt of yak meat is produced annually (FAO 1989) (Table 3.3). The Average milk meat consumption is 9.6 kg/year and egg 26.4 number/year.

• Eggs: The major sources of egss are hen and ducks. The total production of eggs 600,800 thousands number of eggs during FY 2005/06 and contribution of hen is oabout 98 percent (ABPSD, 2006).

The supply of animal products is assumed much lower than the dietary requirements of the total population. The requirement of the dietary energy is estimated to be lesser than the requirement i.e. 2,220 calories/day/person, and the share of animal products are less than 6 percent; which is far below then other developed Asian countries like Japan (19.3 %), Australia (29.2%) and New Zealand (35.1%) (RAPA, 1989). The livestock by-products are considered as a luxurious food items, not commony affordable by the poor families. By enhancing the animal production the availability of dietary energy could be increased for better human health conditions in Nepal.

Sources of Manure

Dung and litters are important sources of plant nutrients in Nepal especially in mountain and hills where the transportation is a major problem. The uses of chemical fertiliser for crops are very low. It is estimated that the use of total plant nutrients in Nepal was 24 kg/ha only, whereas in the neighbouring countries like India the use of plant nutrients is 65.2 kg/ha and in China 262.0 kg/ha (FAO/RAPA, 1990). To increase the food grain production and to maintain the fertility status of soil, animal manure plays an important role. Manure is the essential input into the crop production systems; the increased crop yield is directly coorelated with the higher number of livestock per households in Hills. Composting and tethering the animals on cropland for manuring is a traditional practice. It is estimated that livestock and pigs combinely produce over 47 m. Mt of manure, which is equivalent to 15. m Mt of Nitrogen Manure obtained from livestock is balanced and rich in plant nutrients. The Nitrogen content in cattle and buffaloes' manure is 0.25 and 0.33 percent respectively on fresh matter basis (Oli 1987). Livestock in the form of urine also contributes additional manure. However, most of the faecal and urine are either lost during grazing and could not be used as manuring for crops. Recently, due to the shortage of fuelwood large proportions of faecal materials are burned for domestic purposes. CBS, (2006) estimates that animaldung contributes to produce 21,626 GJ energy as a fuel and in the form of bio-gas 2078 GJ in 2005/06 (CBAS, 2006).

To meet the crisis of fuelwood and to promote dung as sources of plant nutrients Government of Nepal has implementing programme on biogas plant installation, which converts the dung and urine into cooking gas and slurry. Slurry is a good source of plant nutrients. So far, 30,000 plants have been installed in Southern Terai and Middle hills and up to FY 2,000 over 125,000 plants have targeted to establish (Pande 1996).



Sources of Draught Power

Cattle and buffaloes as draught animal are the major source of agricultural power. However, the use of mechanical power in agricultural work is increasing these days. There were only 7,156 tractors for agricultural work was registered during 2002/03 to 2005/06 (CBS, 2006). However, it was observed that the mechanical power are used in government Farms only. Furthermore, the tractors owned by private sector are used for transportation of goods rather than agricultural work. The male cattle (oxen) and male buffaloes are generally used for ploughing and other drought works. Generally the female animals are not used for draught purpose. There are 2794,487 cattle oxen and 212,576 buffalo oxen used for draught purpose; rearing bullock for agricultural work is rapidely declining. Similarly, in Northern belt Yak, Jhopkyo, goats (Chyangra) and sheep (Bhyanglung) are used as pack animals. In Northern belt Yak is the only animal to carry goods for the Himalayan expeditions. Yak can carry 60-80 kg of weight. Besides the ruminants, horses, mule, ponies are also the major pack animals in northern belt. Shrestha and Sherchand (1988) estimated that contribution of livestock to produce power is over 0.99 million H.P., in which cattle generate over 90 percent only. However, in some cases farmers do not use animal power for agricultural use because of religious believes, for example, in Lele, Lalitpur (Shrestha et al., 1984). Though draught animals do most of the tillage work, still these animals are under utilised. Most of the periods of the year they remain idle and are economic burden to the farmers. Oli (1986) found that animals are only used for a period of two months in a year for agricultural work in eastern hills. In Southern Terai where animals are used for pulling cards and where the cropping intensity is higher the contribution of draught power could be more.

Sources of Hide and Skin

The hide and skin is the major by-product of livestock. Nepal produces over 2.1 million of hide and skin (Shrestha and Sherchand, 1988). At present, there are 1bout 15 major hide and skin processing industries in Nepal, but most of these are closed and only few are functioning. Among the major leather industries, the Narayani Leathers is the largest exporter in Nepal. Narayani leathers alone exported 3308430 sq ft during the FY 2060/61 (2003/2004) (Kantipur Daily, April 13, 2004). The total export during the FY 2003/04 was 5803223 sq ft. in Nepal Other leather factories are Marium Leather, Everest Leathers, Global Leathers in Nepal. Hide and Skin Processing Pvt. LTD has the capacity of 600,000 pieces/year and others are Hetaunda Leather Industries (capacity 15,000 Pisces/year), Nepal Leather Tanning Industries Pvt. LTD (capacity 2,000 piece/year) besides Bansbari Leather and Shoe Factory (capacity 30,000 piece/year). Most of the raw products are exported to India and China; the domestic consumption is very low. The rawhide Collection and Development Company LTD has sole right to collect and export. During FY 1988/89 the Company collected about 170,000 numbers of hides. The production of hide is much lower than its potentiality because most of the meat consumed in Nepal is with skin. Only the non-Hindu consumed unskined meat.

Sources of Wool and Hair

Wool is mainly produced by sheep, and hairs are produced by goats. The estimated production of wool is about 586988 kg in FY 2005/06 (ABPSD, 2006). The locally produced wool is used in Radi, Pakhi making industries. The local wool is of low quality and is not considered for carpet making industries. Since the carpet industries are flourishing, most of the carpet wool is imported either from New Zealand and/or from Tibet. During the FY 1994/95. Nepal imported 20,000 Mt of raw wool (APROSC 1995). Edeavour to promote carpet type wool producing sheep in Nepal was attempted but was not been very successful.

No systematic data are available of the production of hair from goats and other animals such as Yak/Chauris, horses and rabbit. However, a reasonable amount of hair are produced and used locally to make various goods such as bags, rope and woollen goods.

Sources of Cash

Livestock is a major source of cash income. Livestock serves as an asset. The livestock are considering as a source of fixed property like land. Rural farmers use livestock as a live Bank. At the time of crisis the live animals especially castrated buck, milch cow or buffaloes, oxen are sold for cash income.
The live animals and livestock products are the main source to eject cash from urban to rural areas in Nepal. For example, there are over 1,375 milk producers’ cooperatives in over 51 districts in the contry associated with Central Dairy Cooperative Association Ltd (CDCAN undated). The Government owned Dairy Development Corporation (DDC) alone purchase about 0.2 million litres of raw milk everyday from farmers of 39 districts (DDC, 2005), equal quantities of raw milk are purchased by other private dairies. During 2003/04 the DDC alone paid Rs 1,052 million (Rs 70 =1 US$) as a milk price to the milk producer farmers through its 875 Milk Producers Cooperative Societies (MPCS) (http://www.dairydev.com.np). Similar amount have been paid by other 200 private dairies working in milk processing and marketing. The dairy enterprises in Nepal are dominated by small farmers. It is estimated that over 423, 000 dairy farmers are directly and another 10 percent indirectly involved in dairy enterprises (CDCAN, undated).


Sentiment/religious value

Animals are highly respected with religious value. Cow is regarded as second mother of the Hindu people, and other domestic animal such as oxen; dog, elephant and crow are worshipped during the Tihar festival. Killing female animals are against the law. However, male animal and poultry bird such as cock is sacrificed to the temple to please the Hindu God. Rearing animals are symbol of prosperity and social status.

General description livestock breeds
Cattle (Native: Bos indicus; European: Bos taurus):

Cattle are primarily raised to provide draft power for agricultural work and for manure. Total population of cattle is about 7002,912 in which cross bred comprises about 8.7 percent. About 2297,100 agricultural households (over over 68 percent of total agricultural families) are raring cattles. The major native breeds of acttle are Lulu, Achhami, Siri, Khaila, Terai, and Hilly. These native cows have short lactation period (180-200 days), long calving interval (12-24 months), and low milk yield capabilities (less than 300 lt/lactation). Being a Hindu dominated country, killing and exportation of cattle is restricted in Nepal so the number of unproductive cattle is increasing. However, the cattle population is decreasing each year. There are different native breeds of cattle in Nepal such as–

• Lulu cattle: Lulu cattle are found in Mustang, Dolpa and Manang districts. The average body weight is 125 kg.
• Achhami cattle: Achhami cattle are found in Achham, Bajhang, Bajura and Doti districts, these animals are the smallest cattle breed in world. The average body weight is 124 kg
• Siri cattle: Siri cattle are found in eastern hills like Ilam, Panchathar and are considered as extinct from Nepal The average body weight is 286 kg.
• Hill cattle (Kirko): Hill cattle are small in body size and weigh about 165 kg lives body weight. The Hill cattle locally called 'kirko' are usually kept for agricultural work such as ploughing. These cattle are the prime source of manure. The milk production is about 370 lt. per lactation.
• Terai cattle (Zebu): The Terai cattle are found at Southern belt and are believed to be developed from the indiscriminate crossing of Indian cattle with hill cattle. They are bigger in size compared to the hill cattle and the output of milk and drought are also high. The average body weight is 210 kg.

The characteristics features and performance of native cattle:
• The native cattle are resistant to most of the tropical diseases,
• It has ability to better utilisation of coarse roughage,
• It can withstand more heat and cold conditions,
• It is adapted to thrive well in harsh conditions,
• It can clime steep hills and mountains for grazing,
• The age of first calving ranges 32-52 months,
• The milk yield ranges 360-760 Lt/lactation
• The lactation length is about 310 days,
• Body weight of mature male is about 310 kg and of female 220 kg,
• The most common breeding season is August and calving takes place in April.

The preference of pure bred cattle: Compared to the native cattle, the exotic cattle's are susceptible to most of the tropical diseases, demands high quality feeds and management practices. The age of first calving ranges from 29-31 months, milk yield ranges 4,000-6,000 Lt/lactation. Compared to either purebred exotic cattle and/or native the crosses of these two are intermediate types. The age of first calving of these cross animals is 28-36 months and milk yield ranges 1,400-1,800 Lt/lactation.

It is recommended that even with better management and feeding practices, the purebred dairy cattle with high level of exotic inheritance should not be recommended in Nepalese conditions. It is observed that 50 per cent native inheritance have performed better than those with pure exotic breeds are. However, under intensive management conditions crossbred cows are being more popular in Nepal especially around the periphery of urban areas. Most of these dairy cows are imported from India. Crossbred cows are found more efficient to convert feed into milk compared to buffaloes.

Government of Nepal have been given priority to develop the crossbred cattle and has established different Cattle Development Farms viz.
a) Livestock Development Farm, Jiri: Brown Swiss cattle,
b) Livestock Development Farm, Khumaltar (Presently under NARC): Holstein and Jersey
c) Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara: Achhami.

Description of Major exotic breeds in Nepal:
• Holstein-Friesian: It is one of the highest yielding dairy breeds in the world. The breed was found suitable for Southern and Middle hills under well-managed conditions. The bulls and frozen semen are extensively used in AI for cross breeding programme to upgrade the milk production potentiality of native cows.
• Jersey: It is a famous dairy breed of cattle, noted for small body size, low feed intake with high milk yield of rich fat content. The breed is found suitable for Southern and Middle hills. The bulls and frozen semen are extensively used for cross breeding programme to upgrade the milk production potentiality of native cows. First introduced in 1,957 from US government under American Heifer Project in Nepal. Presently, it is raised at Bovine Research Centre, Khumaltar, Lalitpur
• Brown Swiss: It is a famous multipurpose breed. Presently, the breed is raised at Livestock Development Farm, Jiri. The bulls and frozen semen are used to upgrade the milk production potentiality of native cows in high mountains.

Buffaloes (Bos buballis):



The buffaloes are multi-purpose animals, primarily reared for milk and secondarily for meat, draught and manure production. The buffaloes are raised by well -off ond/or middle class families, and are considered as a symbol of social and economical status. About 15,86,800 households (47 percent of the agricultural households) are rearing buffloes. Total buffalo population is 4.2 million in which improved pure bred or crosses are 24.6 percent. Out of the total production, over 71 percent of the milk, and 65 percent of the meat shared by buffaloes (Table -3.3). Each year the population of buffaloes are increasing by 2.3%. The buffalo's milk is paid higher price than cattle's milk based on fat content. On average buffalo milk contain 6.5 percent fat compared to cow milk 4.5 percent fat. Contrary to the milk buffolo meats are considered of lower value and are sold at lower rate in comparison to chevon. Buffaloes are reared at lower altitude and the milk production is 900 for local and 1200 for improved) lit/lactation. Buffaloes are the most valued and cared animals. Most of the milch buffaloes are stall-fed.
The major native breeds are Lime, Parkote, Gaddi, and Terai buffaloes. Native buffalos produces about 962 - 1226 liter of milk with the lactating period of 267-423 days and the long calving interval (20. to 21.5 months)
The native breeds of buffaloes are of two types:
• Lime: The Lime breed is quite common in middle hills of Nepal. The animal is small in body size, brown in colour, sickle shaped curl horn and white belt around neck. The average body weight is 311 kg.
• Gaddi: The Gaddi breed is found in found in far western region and are considered as a good milker. The average body weight is 452 kg.
• Parkote: The Parkote breed is common in Southern Terai belt of Nepal. The animal is medium in size, black in colour, long shored like horn. The average body weight is 341 kg.
• The characteristic features of the native buffaloes are:
• The age of first calving ranges 48-66 months,
• The milk yield ranges 600-1,100 Lt/lactation
• The calving interval ranges from 383-621 days,
• The lactation length is about 221-633 days.
• Arna (Bubalus arnae): Arna is a wild swamp buffalow found inside the Koshi-Tappu Wildlife Conservation Park

Generally, the native milk production from these native breeds varies from 926 – 993 lt./yr. with high fat contents (7.2 percent).

Description of major exotic buffalo breed:
Murrah: Murrah is one of the most famous dairy buffalo breed in the world. Officially this breed was introduced in 1967 from India. HMG/Nepal has been upgrading native buffalo through crossbreeding program using Murrah breed. Under HMG/N, Department of Livestock Services, two buffalo development farms are established viz.:
 Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara, and
 Tarahara Livestock Development Farm (Presently, under NARC).

The farms are promoting crossbreed of Murrah buffalo. Pure Murrah buffalo bulls have been imported from India and are distributed among the farmers. HMG/N has been implementing AI programme in buffaloes also and is using Murrah semen. To upgrade the local buffaloes natural breeding program has also been carried out in the country.

Murrah and the crosses of /Murrah are found superior than local buffaloes. The comparative characteristics of native and Murrah buffaloes in Nepalese conditions are:
The performance of the Murrah buffaloes' is:
• The age of first calving is about 42 months,
• The milk yield is about 1,688 Lt/lactation
• The calving interval is 587 days,
• The lactation length is about 333 days.

Performance of Murrah buffaloes in Nepalese conditions is very good. However, the pure bred buffaloes are more susceptible to most of the tropical diseases, demands high quality feeds and management practices. Compared to either purebred exotic buffaloes and/or native the crosses of these two are intermediate types. The age of first calving of crosses is 47-52 months and milk yield ranges 967-1645 Lt/lactation. The calving interval is 438-624 days and the lactation length is about 215-356 days.

Yak & Nak (Bos grunniens) and Chauris

Yak and Nak are pure breed Himalayan cattle. The scientific name is Bos grunniens. Yak and Nak reared at higher altitude regions and seldom comes below 3,000 m. Yak is raised in 22 Himalayan districts of Nepal along the Tibetan boarders. The estimated population of the Yak/Chauries is about 95,000 number (2001/02) and about 14200 households are rearing yak/chairies (CBS, 2006). It has long hairs and pointed horns. The adult body weight of a male is about 245 kg and of female Nak is about 215 kg. Yak and Nak provides milk and meat for human consumption. Castrated yak used as pack animal and could carry up to 120 kg of weight. Yak skins are used for making bags, sacks and other materials. Fibbers are used for making ropes and blanket (‘radi’). Yak steak is quite popular among the tourists. FAO/RAPA (1994) estimate that the total production of yak steak is 5 Mt/yr.

Yak & cattle and vice versa are crossed to produce hybrids. The female hybrids are called Chauris. Depending on breeding practices Chauris are of different types. The progeny of Nak (female Yak) and hill cattle bull are called Dimjo chauri and the progeny of Yak with hill cow is called Urang chauri. The male hybrids called Jhopkyo and are sterile. The male Jhopkyo are more docile and are capable to carry more weight than either of the parents. The male hybrids are mainly used as pack animals.

The female Chauris are more productive than Nak. The hybrids are more adaptive to lower temperature and are reared at the intermediate zone between cattle and Yaks (Joshi, 1982; Robinson 1992; Miller 1993). The population of the pure Yak/Nak is rapidly declining. It is estimated that there are 56 thousands of Yak and Chauris in Nepal (Miller, 1993). Out of the total Yak/Chauris population the pure Yak/Nak population is only 10,000.
The performances of the Yak/Nak are:
• The age of first calving is 48 months,
• The milk yield is 470 Lt/lactation
• The calving interval is 687 days,
• The lactation length is about 174 days.

The performances of the Chauris' are:
• The age of first calving is 36 months,
• The milk yield is 1960 Lt/lactation
• The calving interval is 425 days,
• The lactation length is 254-400 days.

Generally breeding takes during the months of August to November and calving takes place in the months of April to July.

Milk production capability of a Chauris is more than Nak. The milk produced from Nak and Chauris are used for making Yak cheese, which is quite popular among the tourist. There are altogether 20 Yak cheese (11 under Dairy Development Corporation and 9 under private sector) Pande 1996. Total Yak cheese production is about 115 Mt in FY 1994/95. HMG/Nepal has established a Yak Farm at Solukhumbu in 1973/74 for the development of Yak/Nak and Chauris. There was another Yak Farm at Dolpa, which was closed down in 1994 (Pande, 1996).

Sheep (Ovis aries):

Sheep are reared for wool, meat, pack, manure and milk and about 67,700 households are rearing sheep in Nepal mostly in Hills and mountains. The estimated population sheep is about 0.8 million, in which improved cross bred comprises about 4.6 percent. The sheep population is decreasing each year. The total production of sheep meat (mutton) is 2,737 Mt and the wool production was 586,988 Mt in 2005/06. The average production of the wool is very low (0.7 kg/head/year). The sheep population is decreasing each year. The major native breeds are Bhyanglung, Dhorel, Baruwal, Kage and Lampuchhre. The native wool is of lower quality and is used for making Radi/Pakhi and other woollen products for local consumption. Only the wool obtained from Bhyanglung sheep are used in carpet industries.

The government of Nepal, Department of Livestock Services, sheep development programme has been carried out in three different Farms namely Chitlang Sheep Development Farm, Panchasaya Khola Sheep Development Farm and Livestock Development Farm Pokhara. Besides, the DLS Farms research on sheep farming has been conducting at Guthichaur Sheep Research, Jumla, Agricultural Research Centre Pakhribas and Lumle under NARC.
The major breeds are Baruwal, Kage and Bhanghlung. The performance of the Native sheep is:
• The age of first lambing is 17- 25 months,
• The lambing interval 360- 365 days
• The average body weight of the adult animals is 25-30 kg,
• The wool yield is 0.3 to 1.3 kg/sheep/yr.

Descriptions of the major native sheep breed:
• Baruwal: Baruwal sheep is raised under migratory system in mountains and high hills. Baruwal breed comprises 63 percent of the total sheep population. The average body weight is 35 kg. Total population of this breed is about 578,898. The wool is coarse type and used for making Radi/Pakhi.
• Kage: Kage sheep is found in middle hills specially Kathmandu and Pokhara valley. Kage breed comprises 21 percent (192,966 number) of the total sheep population. The average body weight is male -32, female 22 kg).
• Lampuchhre: Lampuchhre sheep is found in Southern belt and, are reared by 'Gaderiya' community. Lampuchhre breed comprises 12 per cent (110266 number) of the total sheep population. The average body weight is 30 kg.
• Bhyanglung: Bhyanglung sheep are raised in Trans-Himalayan region under migratory system. Bhyanglung breed comprises only 4 percent (367,554 number) of the total sheep population. The average body weight is 26 kg. The wool of the Bhayanglung is suitable for carpet making.

Description of major exotic sheep breed:
• Merino: Merino is one of the finest wool breeds in world. Presently it is raised and studied at Sheep/Goat Research Centre, Guthichaur Jumla and Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara.
• Polwarth: This breed of sheep is raised in Sheep/Goat Research Centre, Guthichaur Jumla and Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara. The breeding ram is used for cross breeding programme to up grade the native Baruwal breed.
• Rambouillet: It was introduced in 1957 under the American Heifer Project. Presently it is raised at Panchasayakhola Sheep Development Farm, Nuwakot. The ram is used for cross breeding to up grade the native Kage breed.
• Border-Leicester: It is raised at Panchasayakhola Sheep Development Farm, Nuwakot and Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara.
• Romney Mars: It was introduced in 1995 under GTZ support from Germany mainly to promote carpet wool production in Nepal. The sheep are raised at Panchasayakhola Sheep Development Farm, Nuwakot and Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara.

In the recent year's, carpet making industries are flourishing in Nepal. Nepal is importing over 20,000 Mt of raw wool annually mainly from New Zealand (APROSC 1995). To develop a substitute of the imported carpet wool Government of Nepal has been promoting carpet wool producing sheep in the country. Upgrading of native sheep breed revealed the potentiality for carpet wool production in Nepal. Baruwal has been upgrade (50% blood level) with Polwarth and Merino breed for improving wool quality. Wool from half bred sheep ( Polwarth x Baruwal), medium type wool of 35 micron with 23 bulk value, can successfully mixed up to 80 percent to make high quality carpet.Various studies/reports has been published on potentiality of carpet wool production in the country e.g. APROSC (1995), GTZ (1994) and many others. However, it is assumed that under the present conditions of sheep population, available feed resources and management practices, it does not seems possible to substitute even by 10 percent of the importation of the New Zealand wool in Nepal.

Goats (Capra hircus)



The goat is the most popular species among the domesticated animals, even landeless and non-agricultural households are also rearing goats as a source of meat and cash generation. The goat farming is widely practiced as a means for poverty alliviation in rural sectors; adopted by government as well as non-government agencies. The estimated population of goats is 7.4 million in which about 13.7 percent are cross bred goats. The goat population is growing by 2.4% each year. Goats are used for meat, pack, manure, and milk. The total production of goat meat (chevon) was 42,820 Mt in 2005/06. The major native breed of goats area Chyangra, Sihal, Khari and Terai goats.

The performance of the native goats are:
• The age of first kidding ranges from 345-365 days,
• The kidding interval is 264-336 days
• Kidding percentage is 1.73,
• The average body weight of the adult male is 24-45 kg,

There are three breeds of native goats.

• Khari/hill goat: Khari goat is found in Hills and comprises about 50 per cent of the total goat population. These Khari breeds are prolific with high twinning rate (57.0 %) higher kid survival rate (90-93%) and compatible with Baruwal sheep flock in the hills and mountain with a number of kids weaned per year per doe is 1.71.The average body weight of the female is 24 and male is 28 kg.
• Sinhal: Sinhal goat is found in high hills and mountains of the country. The Sinhal goat population comprises about 16 per cent of the total goat population. The average body weight of the female is 28 and male is 34 kg.
• Chyangra: Chyangra goats are raised under migratory system in mountains and are considered as valuable for fine Pashmina fiber production suitable for high quality garments. The average body weight of the female is 29 and male is 35 kg.The Chyangra comprises only about 1 percent of the total goat population.

Description of major exotic goat breed:
The performance of the Exotic goats is:
• The age of first kidding is 735-751 days,
• The kidding interval 238-315 days,
• Kidding percentage is 1.17-1.45.
• The average body weight of the adult male is 44-68 kg.

• Sanan: Sanan is a famous milk-producing breed among goats. It was introduced in 1966 from Israel for crossing with native goats to increase milk production potentiality. Presently it is raised at Panchasayakhola Sheep Development Farm, Nuwakot and Chitlang Sheep Development Farm, Makawanpur.
• Jamunapari: It is a duel purpose Indian breed for meat and milk production. Presently it is raised at Goat Research Centre, Bandipur, Tanahu and Goat Development Farm, Budhitola, Dhangadhi.
• Barberi: Barberi is a meat-producing breed. Presently it is raised at Goat Development Farm, Budhitola, Dhanagadhi.
• Beetal: It is raised at Livestock Development Farm, Gaughat, Banke.

Government of Nepal has been given priority on goat production. At Dhangadhi Goat Development Farm has been established under DLS. Research on goats has been conducted at Goat Research Centre, Bandipur and Tanahu under NARC. Research/studies on goats has also been done at IAAS, Rampur and Agricultural Research Centre Pakhribas and Lumle, presently under NARC.

The goats are much preferred than sheep and or large ruminants in Nepal. The major causes are:
• Low capital investment,
• Relatively small body size,
• Higher prolificacy,
• High demand for meat,
• Low risk of animal casualty,
• Lower feed requirement,
• Easy to handle,
• Goats are hardy, inherent ability to utilise mountain terrain, and
• Goats are multipurpose animals.



Pigs (Sus domesticus)

Pigs are important animals raised for meat production. There are 960,827 pigs in Nepal, in which improved breed comprises about 40.8 percentage Total production of meat is about 15,773 Mt in 2005/06. Pigs are mainly found in Southern Terai and Middle Hills. Pigs are raised especially by Indo-Burman ethnic groups and so called scheduled cast. About 75 percent of the pig population are local and are raised by about 32,700 households.
The major breeds of native pigs are Chuwache and Hurra. The pig population is growing by 4% each year. The performance of the native pigs are:
• The age of first farrowing is 15 months,
• The farrowing interval is 196 days
• Number of piglets per farrowing 5 - 6,
• The average body weight of the adult male is 51 kg and female 58 kg,

The major native pig breeds are: .
• Chwache: Chwache pig is found in middle hills. The Chwache pigs are small in body size and black in colour. The average body weight of the female is 24 and male is 32 kg. Chwache breed comprises about 58 percent of the total pig population.
• Hurra: Hurra pig is found in Southern belt of Terai. The Hurra pigs are rusty brown in colour and are larger than Chwache pigs. The average body weight of the female is 49 and male is 45 kg.These pigs are looks like wild pig (Bandel). Hurra pigs comprise about 23 percent of the total pig population.
• Bampudke: Bampudke pig is a wild species is considered as a smallest hog in the world. They are rusty brown to black in colour and the average body weight of the female is 19 and male is 20 kg.
• Bandel: Bandel hogs are wild species found in protected/conservation areas of Nepal.

Most of the native pigs are reared under scavenging system, good in reproductive characters and high qality meat, but are in lower body weight. Upgrading of pigs has been done through cross breeding program with exotic breeds mainly Hampshire, Yorkshire, Landrace, Tamworth, Saddle back and Fayuen.

Various government farms are established to promote pig production such as DLS Farm at Pokhara, Jiri, NARC farms in Tarahara, Khumaltar, Pakhribas and Lumle. The demands of pork are growing especially in the urban centres and thus the pig farming using exotic breeds are becoming popular. The growth rate of improved breed is about 7 percent (LMP, 1993).

The performance of the Exotic pigs is:
• The age of first farrowing is 9 months,
• The farrowing interval is 183 days,
• Number of piglets per farrowing is 7-9.
• The average body weight of the adult male 170 kg and of female 160 kg.

Description of major exotic pig breed:
• Yorkshire: The breed was developed in UK. The breed is white in colour. The adult body weight is about 310-450 kg and of female is 250-350 kg. It is raised at Agriculture Research Centre, Tarahara and Livestock Development Farm, Pokhara.
• Landrace: The breed was developed in Denmark. It was introduced in 1967 from Australia under the "Society for those who have less". The breed is white in colour; it has short legs, long pendulous ear. The adult body weight is about 310-400 kg and of female is 250-350 kg. Presently it is raised at Agriculture Research Centre, Khumaltar and Livestock Development Farm, Jiri.
• Hampshire: The breed was developed in UK. It is famous breed with black in colour with white belt around the chest. The adult body weight is about 270-480 kg and of female is 230-310 kg. Presently, it is raised at Agriculture Research Centre, Tarahara.
• Tamworth: The breed was developed in UK. The breed is golden/orange in colour. The adult body weight is about 320-450 kg and of female is 270-330 kg. Presently, it is raised at Agriculture Research Centre, Pakhribas.
• Pakhribas black: It is developed in Agriculture Research Centre by crossing with Fauyan (China), Tameworth (UK) and Sedal-back (UK). The breed is black in colour. The average adult body weight of male is 170 kg and of female is 160 kg. It is one of the popular breeds in eastern hills.
• Durock: This breed is developed in USA. It has golden/Dark brawn/coffee in colour. It is introduced and popularised by private sector Pig Farm Nakkhu, Lalitpur by Dr J.N. Rai.

At the government farms the pigs are reared under well management practices and are offered balanced ration.

Poultry (Gallus domesticus)

• Traditionally, poultry farming is considered as a lower call business. However, in the recent years the commercial poultry farming is emerging as an viable economical entreprises. It is estimated that over 1594,400 households are rearing poultry birds (CBS, 2006). Since last decades, commercial poultry farming for meat and eggs is being quite popular especially around the urban centres. The total population of poultry birds are 236,14,334 (2,32,21,439 fowl and 392,895 ducks) (ABPSD, 2006) in which 54.2 percent are pure bred poultry birds. Poultry birds contribute 15,835 (fowl 15,605 and ducks 230) Mt in total meat production and the total eggs production are 600,800 thousand (hen 587,219 and ducks 13,581) thousands eggs in 2005/06 (ABPSD, 2006). The poultry population is growing by 5% each year and estimated production of egg for local is 40 and 280 for pure bred hen. There are about 82 hatcheries producing broiler and layers chicken to the commercial poultry farmers. The major commecial breeds are Cobb 100, Cob 500, Kashila, Lohmann, H & N, Hyline, Marshall, and Rose 308.

Three types of poultry breeds are raised in Nepal:
• Local breed: Shakini,
• Pure breed, and
• Synthetic breed.

The types and description of local breed:
The native breeds are of poultry are hardy in nature, suitable for scavenging and are duel purpose, with high meat quality. Following tpypes of native poultry breeds are found in Nepal
• Shakini: The local Shakini breed of poultry is a small in body size, different feather colour, hardy in nature. The egg production capacity is 70 to 80 /year. The average adult body weight is 1.5 to 2.0 kg.
• Ghanti Khuile: The Ghanti Khuile breed of poultry is a typical bird with few feathers in enck, different feather colour, hardy in nature, noted for delecacy of meat. The egg production capacity is 60 to 80 /year. The average adult body weight of male is 1.6 and female is 1.30 kg.
• Puwankh Ulte: The Puwankh Ulte breed of poultry is a typical bird with outward growth of the feathers. The average adult body weight of male is 1.0 and female is 0.9 kg.
Description of exotic poultry breeds:
Pure exotic breeds of poultry birds are raised at Government Farms and are used to upgrade the native breed of poultry birds. Two types of poultry birds are raised in Nepal such as New Hampshire & Austrolorp.

• New Hampshire: It is an American breed, brown in colour. The average body weight of adult male is 3.8 and female 2.9 kg. The egg production potentiality is 200 eggs/yr. At present the breeds is raised at Brooder Farm Banke, Livestock development Farm, Pokhara, Agriculture Centre, Khumaltar, Agriculture Research Centre, Tarahara and Parwanipur.
• Austrolorp: The breed is developed in Australia. The breed is black in colour. The average body weight of adult male is 3.8 and female 2.9 kg. The egg production potentiality is 200 eggs/yr. At present the breeds is raised at NARC Research Centres, Khumaltar, Tarahara and Parwanipur.
• Giri Raja: It was introduced and tested by Pakhribas Agriculture Centre. At present the breeds is raised at NARC Research Centres, Pakhribas,

Synthetic breed/Commercial breeds:
Synthetic breeds are commercial breed (Hybrid) for egg and meat (broiler) production. The eggs and meat production is very high. Similarly, the egg production is about 250-300 per year. The broiler attains 2 to 2.5 kg in 8-10 weeks of age. The synthetic breeds of poultry birds are raised at Private sector for eggs and broiler production. Many synthetic breeds are raised by the private sector such as follows:

• Shaver: It is developed in Canada. Both egg type and broiler type are produced and supplied by major hatchery e.g. Joshi Poultry, Balaju, Kathmandu.
• Babcob: is a breed of layers, developed in USA and promoted by Nepal Poultry, Kathmandu. Ratna Hatchery, Kathmandu.
• Key stone: is a breed of layers, developed in USA and promoted in Nepal by Khatri Industries, Kathmandu,
• Uni- chix: The breed is developed in Czechoslovakia.
• Hy- bro: is a breed of broilers, developed in USA.
• Arbor- Acres: is a breed of broilers, developed in USA.

Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

Rabbit farming for wool and meat is recent intervention on livestock production system. Economical importance of rabbit farming and technology for small scale rabbit production was introduced and popularised by ODA funded projects Pakhribas and Lumle Agricultural Centres around 1980's. In the eastern Middle hills like Dhankuta, meat type rabbit are Hy-line Californian, New Zealand white and Chinchilla were introduced and tested. Due to white fur and innocent look the rabbit farming for meat production could not be popularised in Nepal.

In recent years Angora type rabbit for wool production was introduced by the private sector mainly to meet the demand of woollen garments for tourist. The estimated population of Angora rabbit is rearing in 30 districts of Nepal. However, the authentic data of the population is lacking. Most of the rabbit is reared in small scale. The average meat production from rabbit is 1.5 kg/each. And, from Angora type rabbit average wool production is about 1.6 kg/head/yr. The estimated wool production is about 3 Mt kg.

Horses (Equus caballus) and Donkey (Equus asinus)
Horses and donkeys are mainly reared as pack animals. The mules are used for carrying groceries including firewood to food grains. The estimated population is about 0.2 million. About 100500 households are involved in equain farming in Nepal (CBS, 2006). The equines are the most neglected domestic animals in Nepal. Traditionally, farmers are crossing horses and donkey to produce mules, which are popularly used as pack animals at mountains. There is a lack of organised efforts to improve the breed of horse and donkeys. Under DLS donkeys are imported from India and Tibet for the distribution purpose to upgrade and to produce mules in Nepal. During 1986/87 to 1988/89 DLS has distributed 33 donkeys under special program at Dolpa, Humla, Jumla, Kalikot and Mugu.

Elephant (Elephas maximus)

Elephants are reared as a pet animal and were used for transportation in the past. These days, the elephants are used for jungle Shaphari to promote tourism. There are about 200 pet elephants in Chitwan Shaphari Camp. A small number of wild elephants are also found in the national parks of Nepal.


The elephants are massive animals of body weight of adult is about 8000 kg. It has large ear and long trunk. Tusks are present in male. Puberty occurs between 8-12 yr. of age. The gestation period is 21-22 months. The calving interval is 4 years. Life expense is 80-100 yr. Elephants eat natural grasses; tree leaves and bamboo shoots in wild and domesticated elephant are fed on straw hay and paddy grains supplemented with tree leaves. The intake varies from 3 percent of the body weight. At Chitwan national Park an adult elephant is provided 250- 300 kg of ration per day including grasses, paddy and molasses. Hetaunda Cattle feed plant has prepared ration for elephant to supply Chitwan National Park.

Major issues

Growth of urban centred commercialised farming systems: The modern, demand-driven and capital-intensive sector, producing poultry meat, eggs, pork, and sometimes milk, increasingly uses state-of-the-art technologies. This sector utilizes resources, in particular concentrate feed, efficiently - with the notable exception of fossil fuel.
It is rapidly expanding to meet urban demand but it is also susceptible to market upheavals; it generates little employment, poses great environmental risks because it tends to concentrate in areas with good market access, and it creates a number of new challenges for human and veterinary public health. Technology uptake has been fast, driven by commercial interests. At the same time, a traditional, resource-driven and labour-intensive sector, continues to provide a multitude of services to subsistence-oriented farms. While not efficient in terms of introduced inputs, this sector uses resources of little or no alternative uses, and for the same reason, its potential to expand beyond moderate growth rates is constrained by low technology uptake, insufficient market facilities and infrastructure, and small economies of scale. Often, these systems are closed cycles of nutrients, farm labour, energy, etc. Unless these cycles are broken, technology uptake will remain constrained.
We are therefore witnessing a dualistic mode of development, with two conflicting components. First, a modern, demand-driven and capital-intensive sector, producing poultry meat, eggs, pork, and sometimes milk, increasingly uses state-of-the-art technologies. This sector utilizes resources, in particular concentrate feed, efficiently - with the notable exception of fossil fuel. It is rapidly expanding to meet urban demand but it is also susceptible to market upheavals; it generates little employment, poses great environmental risks because it tends to concentrate in areas with good market access, and it creates a number of new challenges for human and veterinary public health. Technology uptake has been fast, driven by commercial interests. At the same time, a traditional, resource-driven and labour-intensive sector, continues to provide a multitude of services to subsistence-oriented farms. While not efficient in terms of introduced inputs, this sector uses resources of little or no alternative uses, and for the same reason, its potential to expand beyond moderate growth rates is constrained by low technology uptake, insufficient market facilities and infrastructure, and small economies of scale. Often, these systems are closed cycles of nutrients, farm labour, energy, etc. Unless these cycles are broken, technology uptake will remain constrained.
• Subsistence production: Subsistence Nepalese farming is the major limitations to commercial livestock development. Rearing few heads of animals to fulfil the domestic need has hindered the surplus production of livestock products. Recent trend of dairy production has been curtailed due to access to market and dairy processing centres.
• Conventional system: Common believes towards livestock production system that livestock thrives on grazing and crop by-products limited the cultivation of quality forage crops and adequate feeding.
• Indiscriminate breeding practices: The ancient practices of donation of high pedigree breeding bull have been demolished by inferior animals, which deteriorated the quality of livestock in a long run.
• Small farm holding: The average farm size is about 0.9 ha in which farmers have to grow almost all crops for their subsistence, leaving less and/or land for forage cultivation. Too small size of land holding discouraged the rearing of large herds of less productive animals.
• Splitting families: The traditional combined family has been splitting, which has created a shortage of family members to look after the herds. Due to the lack of adequate manpower peoples of the northern belt are abandoning to rear large herds of animals (Yak/Chauri, sheep, goats and other).
• Shrinking feed resources: The natural community lands and forests resources which was previously used for free grazing has been disappearing due to acquisition for cultivation, forestation, community forestry and other uses. Thus causing extreme feed shortage and farmers has compelled to quite farming of large herds of livestock.
• Government policies/priorities: There is no clear policie for livestock development and the livestock sector development is not the first priority of the government.
• Decreasing number native breed: The native breeds such as Achhami cattle, Yak/Nak population is rapidely decreasing.
• Seasonal production of milk: Most of the milk is produced during flush season (mid August to mid February) where milk production exceeds the market demand where as during lean season (mid February – mid August) the production is too low to carter to consumer demand.
• Management and other support facilities: The support facilities such as veterinary services, concentrated feeds, breeding and others are limited and confined in accessible areas only.

Recommendations

• Markets and marketing: The markets and marketing for livestock products and relevant inputs are very poor in the country. There are three dairies one under Government control and two under private sector. These dairies are collecting less than 10 percent of the total raw milk from the periphery of national high way. Despite these dairies, a small amount of raw milk produced at Northern (Mountains) belt is consumed by Cheese factories. Most of the raw milk of remote areas are locally utilised for domestic consumption and/or making ghee. Providing the marketing facilities their are wide scope for dairy development in Nepal.
• Feeds and forage development: The shortage of feeds and forage especially during winter season is a major limiting factor for enhanced livestock production. Forage cultivated is still a new intervention for the farmers. Extensive programmes and supply of genetic materials such as seeds, vegetative materials for extensive forage development would be useful to increase the production and productivity of livestock.
• Choices of livestock breeds: In the well access areas with infrastructure, markets and health services commercial breeds should be used (dairy cattle/buffaloes, pigs/poultry). In the rural areas of Southern and Middle belt native buffaloes, sheep, goats should be promoted. In Northern belt Yak/Nak, Chauris, sheep and mountain goats should be promoted.