Use of Fodder Trees and Forest Foliage in Nepal

strong>Use of Fodder Trees and Forest Foliage in Nepal


By: Rameshwar Singh Pande

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1. Importance of Fodder Tree Species in NepalFodder shrubs/trees as animal feed, particularly during winter and dry period have been the important traditional source of livestock feed especially, in the Middle and Northern Belt of Nepal. Plantation of fodder trees and shrubs are an ecological sound practices, which contributes on soil conservation and maintaining agricultural sustainability.

Fodder trees and shrubs play an important role in Nepalese economy. More than 136 different species of trees/shrubs have been used as a source of livestock feed in Nepal. Trees/shrubs are the main source of fodder and bedding material for livestock, fuel-wood for energy needs and, timber for house construction. Traditionally, foliage of fodder tree and shrub has been offered to cattle, buffalo, and goats especially in stall-fed conditions. For example, in high Northern Belt, when, the pasturelands are covered with snow for most of the winter season (5-6 months of a year) and there is a conserved forage deficit, the foliage of trees/shrubs help the requirements of feed for livestock.



It is estimated that fodder (either planted or naturally grown) trees/shrubs provide approximately 41 percent of DM in annual feed supply (Pandey, 1982). Pandey (1990a) estimates that about 12 percent of foliage of trees/shrubs has been supplemented with other roughage to dairy cattle in Nepal. A household survey carried out in a Chautara, Nepal showed that the use of fodder was 655 kg per caput, and use of litter for bedding material was 459 kg per caput (New Era, 1980). Despite to provide fodder and bedding material to livestock trees and shrubs also provide fuel-wood, poles and timber for house construction. Fuel-wood is the major source of the energy needs. It was estimated that fuel-wood provides more than 87percent of the country's energy need (Manandhar, 1980; Danovan, 1981). Campbell (1983) found that average annual consumption of fuel-wood in middle hill areas of Nepal was 640 kg per caput.

Trees/shrubs not only provide fodder and fuel-wood at the same time also serve as an excellent source for soil improvement and conservation (Brewbaker, 1983). Leguminous fodder species able to fix 500 kg N/ha/yr. (Withinglin, 1987). Plantation of trees/shrubs along the counters is widely recommended to reduce the run off of water and protect terrace (Lundgren and Nair, 1983; Gilmour, 1984; Weirsum, 1984; Benge, 1987). By planting trees/shrubs, soil erosion can be reduced to about one ton of soil per hectare as compared with annual loss of about 120 Mt under a typical crop production system (Maharajan, 1987).

Most of the leaves of trees/shrubs are of low palatability and low digestibility (Wilson, 1977; Pande, 1990). Many browse species, which have been used in Nepal found to contain high concentration of hydrocyanic acid (HCN) (Pandey, 1982); tannins (Shrestha and Pakhrin, 1989), which is related to decrease in milk yield and can cause gastro-urinal problems in ruminant (Pandey, 1982; Shrestha and Pakhrin, 1989). Animal production is also low when foliage of tree/shrubs were fed as a sole diet to animals (Pande, 1990) but fodder can still be the sole source of feed for animal when herbaceous forage is scare.

2 Feed value of fodder MaterialsFodder serve as a supplementary diet as well as sole diet for ruminant. fodder trees constitutes a valuable source of feed for livestock especially during lean period. Pandey (1990b) reviewed the nutritive value of fodder species and analysis of 19 different fodder tree species which are commonly used in Nepal showed that on an average CP content is generally high i.e. 18.7 percent CP on percent DM (Panday, 1990b). Similarly, Pandey (1982) listed the chemical composition of 49 different species of fodder species which contain 13.6 percent CP (range 5.2 - 29.7 percent DM). Mahto et al (1989) reported that protein content in 6 Ficus species were ranged 8.5 to 13.5 percent which was higher than the protein requirement of lactating ruminant. However, the dry matter digestibility (DMD) was low ranged from 24.4 to 54.1 percent DM.

Most of the fodder species contain adequate amount of trace elements such as Mn, Zn, Fe, Ca and K. However, many browse species are low in Na, P and Cu (Jones, 1979; NAS, 1975; Bohra and Ghose, 1980; Pandey, 1982; Ranawana, 1987; Gupta and Balaraman, 1989).

Leguminous fodder tree species are relatively higher in nutritive value compared to non-leguminous species. For example, Nitrogen (N) content in tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis) was found 3.2 percent DM and in vitro dry matter digestibility (DMD) was 69.3 (Pande, 1990). Similarly, widely used fodder tree species Leucaena contain 2.9percent and in -vitro DMD was 62.2 (Cheva-isarakull & Polikanond, 1985). However, fodder species are generally higher in fibber content compared to grasses in flush season.

Fodder trees/shrub may not be an efficient sole diet for livestock but as a supplement with poor quality roughage such as straw and poor quality grasses, browse may serve as an excellent feed especially in dry season. Van Eys et al (1986) reported that there were increased growth rate in growing goats when napier grass supplemented with tree legumes like gliricidia, leucaena and sesbania compared to napier grass alone in Indonesia. Reynolds and Adediran (1988) reported that lamb growth rate increased when Panicum maximum and cassava peel were supplemented with Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium leaves were fed as a basal diet (in 1:w/w) compared to control diet of Panicum maximum and cassava peel alone.

Published data on the grazing behaviour and preference for browsing behaviour show that goats utilise browse more than any other ruminant. Devendra (1987) categorised goat as browsers and sheep and cattle as grazers. Van Dyne et al (1980) reviewed the wide range of literature and concluded that the overall contribution of browse in greater in goat diet than in sheep and cattle (Table -2). However, Sharma (1985) reported that cattle and buffaloes are the most utilise of fodder trees compared to goat in mid-hills of Nepal but he did not mentioned whether the browse were offered in stall- fed or in free ranging conditions.

3 Estimated Production of Fodder
Fodder trees/shrubs are popularly grown in the Middle and Northern Belt. The productivity of the fodder trees/shrubs depends on species, age, height of the plant and the lopping cycle. The productivity of the fodder trees/shrubs vary from 15- 60 kg/tree/annum (Pandey, 1982).

4 Fodder tree Species Developmental ActivitiesProduction and distribution of fodder trees/shrubs saplings are the major activities of various GO/NGOs. For example, district level offices of Department of Livestock Services, Department of Forest, Department of Soil water Conservation are producing a large number of fodder trees/shrubs sapling and distributes to the farmers at nominal price. Annual distribution of the saplings varies from 1-3 million/year. However, information on the survival percentage and contribution on fodder supply is extremely lacking.

5 Major Fodder tree SpeciesThere are over 136 species of trees/shrubs, which are used as livestock fodder in Nepal (Pande, 1991; Pandey, 1982). Most of these species are non- - legume. A review of the available fodder tree species revealed that only few are legumes.

5.1 Native fodder tree Species
5.1.1 Badahar (Artocarpus lakoocha): It is a most popular fodder tree in Northern and Middle Belt of Nepal. It grows between 200 - 1500 m altitudes. The tree grows up to 30 m high. It is an evergreen in nature. It can be propagated by seeds, nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August. Lopping is done from October/December and April/June.

5.1.2 Bauhinia species: Tanki (Bauhinia purpurea Linn) and Koiralo (Bauhinia variegata Linn): Bauhinia species are most popular native fodder trees. Both are deciduous in nature. Plant grow up to 10 m tall, however, the Koiralo plant grow up to 15m. Plant occurs at Southern to Middle belt regions from 300 m to 1800 masl. It belongs to the leguminous family. However, it does not fix atmospheric Nitrogen. The pod and flowers of Koiralo is consumed as vegetable. Naturally grown plant is protected along the bunds and the terrace risers in the crop field. It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May, the seedpod ripens two months later (i.e. March to June) (Napier and Robbins, 1989). Lopping is done from October/November to March/April. The fodder production varies from 10- 72 kg DM/tree (Warmald et al, 1983; Amatya, 1990). The CP content is up to 30 percent.

5.1.3 Caragana: Caragana brevispina and Caragana geradiana: Caragana are the shrub of steppe region. The shrub is found in the rain shadow area of Nepal like Mustang, Manang district. a) C. geradiana is found at the elevation of 3000-4000m whereas C. brevispina occurs at the higher elevation than C. geradiana at 4200-5000masl. C. geradiana grow up to 80 m tall. b) C. brevispina is bigger than C. geradiana, grows up to 120 m tall. It is highly nutritious, provides green fodder during the dry season. It is browsed by sheep and goats.

5.1.4 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L. Millsp): It is a multipurpose leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 3 m high. It is mainly used as pulse crop in Nepal. It is drought tolerant. It is suitable to grow in Southern and Middle Belt up to 1500 m. Some Indian cultivars of fodder type were introduced at Pokhara Livestock Farm in around 1988 but the plant failed to establish (Shrestha et al, 1990). Later in 1990 it was reintroduced by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation and tested at Manthali, Ramechhap and Kabhre. It produced 3 -4 ton DM/ha in 2-4 cuttings a year (April - May) (Pandit, 1992).

5.1.5 Dudhilo (Ficus nemoralis): It is a most popular fodder tree of western region. It naturally grows between 1200 - 2400 m altitudes. The tree grow up to 30 m high It is a deciduous in nature, old leaves shade during December - January and new flush starts from February - March. The plant remains bare only for short period. It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August. It flowers during February to March, the seed ripens two months later i.e. March - June Lopping is done from October/December and April/June. The fodder production varies from 20 to 55 kg/tree. The CP content is up to 12.3 percent. The foliage contains glucocides 'Saponin' which have side affects to animals and may cause Haematuria.

5.1.6 Bhimal (Grewia optiva): It is a most important fodder tree of western region. It naturally grows between 500 - 1800 m altitudes. It is a medium sized plant. The tree grows up to 15 m high. Old leaves shed on March - April and new flush starts from April - May. The plant remains bare leaf during March- April. It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August. It flowers during April - June, the fruit ripens from October - December. Fruits are edible. Lopping is done from October - February and May - June. The fodder production varies from 35 - 130 kg/tree. The best fodder no side affects has been reported. The CP content is up to 18.8 percent.

5.1.7 Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora): It is a most important fodder tree of temperate region. It naturally grows between 1200 - 2500 m altitudes. The tree grows up to 30 m high. It is an evergreen in nature; new flush starts from March - April. It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August. It flowers during April - May, the fruit (acorn) ripens on December - January. Lopping is done from November - March and May - June. The fodder production varies from 55 - 160 kg/tree. The CP content is up to 11.6 percent. The new flush contains high concentration of tannins, which could have side affects to animals if consumed in large quantity.

5.2 Exotic Browse Species
5.2.1 Kaliandra (Calliandra calothyrus Meissn): It is a multipurpose leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 5 m high. It is drought tolerant but does not thrive under water logged conditions. It is suitable to all over Nepal ranging from Terai to mountains up to 1500 masl. The plant is propagated by seeds. If the seed is treated with hot water prior to seeding rapid germination could be obtained. If the nursery raised seedlings to be planted the seedlings should be of 4--6 months old at the time of planting. The planting distance should be 2 X 2 or 1 X 1 m. The fodder is highly nutritious; CP content is about 22 percent. It produces 7- 10 ton DM /ha of fodder (RAPA, 1987). The plant is also used for ornamental purpose, erosion control and green manuring. It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 m) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute, the performance was good. Within the six months of age the plant attended 0.3-m high and the survival rate was 93 percent an up to the age of six month (Shah, et al, 1990). It was also promoted by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990 and tested at Manthali, Ramechhap (altitude 500 masl) and Kabhre district. The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA. It can be sown directly onto the steep slops and poor sites. It gives 4 cuttings a year (April - May) and produces 46 ton/ha of fresh fodder (Pandit, 1992).

5.2.2 Tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis) (Christ) Hutch.: Tagasaste is leguminous shrub of temperate climate. It is a fast growing, drought resistant shrub of 4-5 m tall. This shrub is quite popular in New Zealand and Australia. The DM Production is up to 25 Mt DM/ha on a 1000 plant/ha basis. The plant is relatively free from disease and pest. Tagasaste is highly nutritious, CP content is about 22 % and digestibility is 71 percent. There is no any side effect reported to be found in tagasaste. Tagasaste was introduced at Khumaltar in around 1984. The plant germinated and grew up to knee height during the dry season but wilted and died during the rainy season due to the water logged conditions (LP Sharma: Personal communication). It was reintroduced in 1991 by the author and tested at Khumaltar. The plant well established and started to flower also but later the plant was uprooted and removed by the authority (Plate - 9)

5.2.3 Flemingia (Flemingia congesta Roxb.): It is a leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 2 m high. It has trifoliate leaves. It is popularly known as "Bhatmase" in Nepal. It is drought tolerant as well as survives short water logging conditions. It is suitable to all over Nepal ranging from Southern Terai to mountains up to 1200 m. It is also used as bush plant to support the creeping legumes such as Centro, kudzu Seratro and others. It was introduced by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990 and tested at Manthali, Ramechhap and Kabhre district. The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA. It is popularly grown at terrace edge of the lowland. It gives 6 cuttings a year (April - May) and produces 44 ton/ha of fresh fodder (Pandit, 1992).

5.2.4 Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud.) (Syn. Gliricidia maculata (H.B.K.) Stued.: It is a fast growing deciduous leguminous shrub. It grows up to 10 m. It prefers tropical/subtropical climate and high rainfall. It could be grown in Southern Terai and hills up to 1500 m but performs well under high rainfall areas. It can be propagated by seeds, seedlings and stem cuttings. For better germination seed should be treated with hot water for 2-3 minutes prior to seeding. It is highly nutritious. The CP content is about 20 percent. The root, barks and seeds are poisonous to cattle (Smith and Van Houtert, 1987). It was considered as a substitute for Leucaena leucocephala. The plant was introduced by Forest Research Division in 1984 and tested at Bara district. In the 18 months of age the plant attended 3.3-m height. The plant was observed to flourish well at Palpa, Tamagadhi and Rampur. It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 m) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute and the performance was found good. It was observed that the plant coppices well. It was also introduced by DLS/Second Livestock Development Project. 10 kg of seed was imported from Australia and tested at Janakpur, Ranjitpur and Pokhara Farm. The performance has not been recorded yet.

5.2.5 Guazuma (Guazuma ulmifolia L./OR Guazuma tomentosa): It is a leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 5 m high. It is drought tolerant as well as survives short water logging conditions. It is suitable to all over Nepal ranging from Terai to mountains up to 1500 m. Forestry Research Institute introduced it in 1985. It performed well. The plant was established in 1986 July during November 1990 the fodder yield was 10.1 kg/tree and in My, 1991 fodder yield was 13.3 (Amatya, 1992). It was also tested by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990. The plant was established at Manthali, Ramechhap and Kabhre district. The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA. It is popularly grown at terrace edge of the cropland. It gives 3-4 cuttings a year (April - May) and produces reasonable quantity of fodder (Nepal Krish Ban Pratisthan: Nepal Agroforestry Foundation, 1993).

5.2.6 Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit.: It is the most popular and widely grown multipurpose fodder species at tropical region of the world. It can be grown from low-lying Terai to 1500-m altitude. The species is widely used for fuelwood, timber and green manuring purposes. It is also used as windbreaks, firebreaks, shade and ornamentation. It can be grown in the tropical and subtropical climate. Depending on variety leucaena grow up to 20 m high. Fodder is highly nutritious, digestible and palatable to cattle, buffalo and goats. Due to the memosine content it is not recommended to the non-ruminants and sheep as it causes some side effects. Plant starts flowering at the age of 4 years. It flowers through out the year except December - January. It bears long and flat seed pot. The seedpods mature after 3-4 months of flowering. It is propagated by direct seeding and from nursery seedling or stump cuttings. For better germination the seed should be emerged in hot water (80 .C) for about 2-3 minutes prior to seeding. Usually planted in 1 by 1-m spacing. a) Leucaena leucocephala was introduced in around 1980 under the DLS/Livestock Development Project and tested at Janakpur, Ranjitpur, Pokhara and other places. The performance of leucocephala was found very promising and also liked by the farmers. It was used as a per species by the Government agency for multipurpose use such as fodder, fuelwood and for soil improvement. In 1983, seven different strains of Leucaena such as CIAT 17388, CIAT 17474, CIAT 17477, K 8, K 28 and K 67 were introduced and tested at Pokhara. The seed was brought from CIAT. During the late 1990s the popularity of the leucocephala started to decline due to the psylllid problem. Alternative to leucocephala many psyllid resistant varieties were introduced and tested in Nepal. In 1990, Second Livestock Development Project/DLS imported 100 kg of leucaena CV Cunningham from Australia and distributed at Janakpur, Ranjitpur and Pokhara Farm. The performance has yet to be reported. Varieties like K- 8 and K- 636 were tested at Bauhinepati under World Neighbor. K- 636 was found good for Terai and K- 8 performed well at lower hills. b. Leucaena diversifolia (Schlecht) Benth. It is a cold- tolerant species of leucaena (Brewbaker, 1983). It is also known to be psyllid resistant variety of Leucaena. In 1983, four different strains of L. diversifolia viz. CIAT–17388,CIAT 17461,CIAT 17485, CIAT 17505, CIAT 17489, CIAT 17503 were introduced and tested at Pokhara. The seed was brought from CIAT. Similarly, three varieties were tested at Rampur (altitude 320 masl) viz. K 29; K 156 and Nizgarh in 1983. The performance was quite good. The cultivars are most promising for Terai and hills. It can grow at higher altitude up to 1300 m.

5.2.7 Black Locust (Robinia pseudocacia L.): It is a tall tree like deciduous plant grows up to 30 m high. It is a native of North America. The plant is adapted to Temperate Zone. It can propagate by seeds, seedlings, and root suckers. The foliage is used as fodder to the livestock, as well as silage production in Bhutan (Nordmeyer, 1988) It can grow in between 1500 - 3500 m altitude in Nepal. The old leaves shed on November/December and new leaves come out in March/April. The plant bears flower on April/May. The plant bears pod and pod matures during September/October. It can be propagated from seeds, root suckers. It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 masl) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute, the plant could not be established however, the performance was good (Shah, et al, 1990). Forest Research Division in around 1984 also tested it. The plant was observed to flourish well at Mustang region. It provides fodder during October/November and May - June. The fodder production varies from 50-240 kg/tree. It is highly nutritious CP content is 21.6 percent. TDN percent is 43 and Tannins 1.9 percent to be found in the foliage.

5.2.8 Sesbania (Sesnbania grandiflora (L.) Poir: It is a fast growing tree like fodder shrub grows up to 10 m high. It is drought tolerant as well as survives short water logging conditions. It is suitable to sub tropical climate and could be grown in Terai and Hills up to 1000 masl. It is frost sensitive could be grown only in frost-free regions. It is also used as ornamental purpose. The flowers and pods are used as vegetable. It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 m) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute the performance was found good. Within the six months of age the plant attended 0.92-m high and the survival rate was 80 percent an up to the age of six month (Shah, et al, 1990). It was also tested by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990 at Manthali, Ramechhap (altitude 500 masl). The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA. It is popularly grown at terrace edge of the lowland. It gives 3-4 cuttings a year (April - May).

6 Limitations of Browse • Presence of secondary compounds: Most of the browse species contain a wide range of inhibitors such as alkaloids, amino acids, cyanogenic, glycosides, organic acids hydrocyanic acids etc. (Bulter and Balay 1773; Panday, 1982; Barry and Blaney, 1987). These secondary compound affects on forage quality and animal performance by various mean. Pandey (1982) listed some species of browse trees and shrubs, which have ill effect on ruminant such as Bauhinia varietaga, Ficus roxburghii, Prunus ceresoides. Shrestha and Pakhrin (1989) concluded that the presence of high concentration of tannin in Ficus auriculata might be the reason for the decreased milk yield in buffaloes during the experimental period conducted at PAC, Dhankuta. Common secondary compounds found in some browse species:Leucaena leucocephala contains memosine; Gliricidia sepium- Caumarin; Salix spp- Tannins; Grewia tiliaefolia- organic acid Seneria jacobaea - Pyrrolizidine

• Production potential: Most of the browse tree/shrubs take 5 to 20 years to yield significant amount of fodder in Nepal (Pandey 1982; Hopkins, 1985). Individual DM yields is also low. Pandey (1982) estimated that on an average a mature browse tree/shrub produces 15-60 kg DM per year. Many indigenous browse species are difficult to establish and propagate, they requires certain altitude and ecological conditions. Altitude and lower radiation is the main reason for low DM yields. Most of the browse trees/shrubs produce relatively high amount of DM at lower altitude than do in high altitude. Pandey and Nosberger (1985) observed that at high radiation the growth pattern of Artocarpus lakoocha was higher compared to low radiation (<15 MJ/sq./d). Similarly, the rate of leaf appearance was lower at higher altitude (1200m and 1500 m) compared to low altitude (800m). At altitude 800m the maximum rate of leaf appearance in Artocarpus lakoocha was 118 leaves/month whereas at 1200 m and 1500 m the maximum rate of leaf appearance was 45 and 10 leaves/month respectively in hill area near Kathmandu (Pandey and Nosberger, 1985).

• Choice of browse species: There are over 550 species of tree/shrubs used as feed source in worldwide origin (Robinson, 1984). Pandey (1982) and Bajracharya et al (1985) mentioned that over 136 species of tree/shrubs have been used as a source of feed in Nepal. Feed value of indigenous browse species is assumed as low compared to introduced leguminous shrub species such as leucaena. Fast growing multipurpose shrubby species are much beneficial than do the tree species. Lower growing shrubby species offer much greater potential compared to tree species from the management point of view as well. Shrubby species can be grazed directly without additional labour cost of lopping or harvesting whereas fodder from tree species must be obtained by lopping of branches.